Review And Practice For The Earth Science Sol Form – Fill Out and Use This PDF

Review and Practice for the Earth Science SOL

Record the Date, time and location of your Earth Science SOL

Spend time reading the Essential Questions shown with each unit. See if you can answer the questions that are being asked. I f you are having difficulty answering questions in a particular unit, spend more time reviewing those sections in the pages that discusses each topic. Analyze the Sample SOL Questions provided with each unit. There should be at least one sample question for each topic within a given unit.

Please study this information well. Knowing this information will make an enormous difference in your success on the SOL. Study it often. Read over it at least once a day. You will get to the point where you are tired of reading it because it has become so familiar…this is a good thing! I t means that you are learning it and your brain is storing it . Spend time reviewing the graphic organizer pages and add information as necessary. You may find there are things that would be helpful to add…please do!

Remember, what you get out of something is directly proportional to what you put into it. I f you put in the time and effort preparing, you will be rewarded with a passing score.

I wish you success on all of your SOL’s!...not just this one.

Words of wisdom: I f you always do what you always did, you’ll always get what you always got!

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010

Scientific I nvestigation

( ES. 1a- e, 2a- e)

ES.1 The student will plan and conduct investigations in which…

฀a) volume, area, mass, elapsed time, direction, temperature, pressure, distance, density, and changes in elevation/ depth are calculated utilizing the most appropriate tools;

฀b) technologies, including computers, probe ware, and global positioning systems (GPS) are used to

collect, analyze, and report data and to demonstrate concepts and simulate experimental conditions;

฀c) scales, diagrams, maps, charts, graphs, tables, and profiles are constructed and interpreted;

฀d) variables are manipulated with repeated trials;

฀e) a scientific viewpoint is constructed and defended (the nature of science).

ES.2 The student will demonstrate scientific reasoning and logic by…

฀a) analyzing how science explains and predicts the interactions and dynamics of complex Earth systems;

฀b) recognizing that evidence is required to evaluate hypotheses and explanations;

฀c) comparing different scientific explanations for a set of observations about the Earth;

฀d) explaining that observation and logic are essential for reaching a conclusion; and

฀e) evaluating evidence for scientific theories.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following questions with confidence about this topic.

฀Scientists ask and answer questions and compare the answers with what is already known. How do scientists ask and answer questions?

฀Scientists plan and conduct experiments and use tools to gather and verify data. How do scientists conduct and verify data?

฀How do scientists plan experiments?

฀How do scientists use systematic processes to test hypotheses?

฀How does the type of question determine the type of investigation?

฀Scientists use reasoning and logic to analyze and interpret data, reach a scientific conclusion and communicate their results. How do scientists use reasoning and logic to communicate their results?

Part One: The Scientific Method

I n any scientific investigation there are 6 basic steps:

•determine the p r o b lem – This starts with an observation that leads to a question. For example, “We are experiencing increasing temperatures worldwide. What role does the use of fossil fuels have on these temperature increases.” Standard format: “What is the effect of the (independent variable) on the (dependent variable)?”

•r esear ch your experiment – See if there are others who have conducted similar experiments. Determine how the item you are experimenting on should behave under normal conditions. This is also where you should set up a p r oced u r e , a step by step list of what to do, so others who conduct your experiment can see if they get the same results.

•make a h y p o t h esis – This is a possible explanation or solution to or outcome of an experimental problem. Standard format: “I f you (change how) the (independent variable), then the (dependent variable) will (change how).”

•t est the hypothesis – This is the part where you collect data and carefully record it in your d at a t ab le.

You should make every attempt to set your experiment up so you can perform multiple t r ials for the best results. One try in an experiment will not get the best results.

• an aly ze the results – This is the part where you perform calculations (like averaging) of your data.

•draw con clu sio n s – This is the part of the experiment where you compare your results back to your original hypothesis. Standard format: “The hypothesis (was or was not) supported by the data because (make comparisons between hypothesis and data).”

•Once a hypothesis has been tested many times, it becomes a t h eor y . When the time comes that all tests prove the hypothesis every time and this hypothesis will be true every time it is tested, it is then considered to be a law .

Key Vocabulary: conclusion, data table, hypothesis, law, problem, procedure, research, test, theory, trial

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010

Page 1

Part Tw o: Variables and Constants

Variables are the things that change in an experiment. There are two variables.

•The in d ep en d en t v ar iab le is changed by the experimenter.

•The d ep en d en t v ar iab le responds to the changes in the independent variable. On a graph of plotted experiment data…

• the independent variable is plotted on the x - ax is (horizontal)

•the dependent variable is plotted on the y - ax is (vertical).

The co n st an t s (controlled variables) are the things that you keep the same.

The co n t r ol is the part of the experiment where the independent variable is not manipulated or is absent . I t is the standard for comparison. This will allow you to make decisions on the outcome of your experiment . I t is the part of the experiment that you compare your results to in order to see if your hypothesis was or was not supported by the data.

The difference between tables and graphs…

•A t ab le is what you use to record data.

•The data gets plotted on to a chart or g r ap h .

Key Vocabulary: constant, control, dependent variable, graph, independent variable, table, x-axis, y-axis

Part Three: Measurement

The I nternational System of Units ( SI u n it ) is the measuring system used by most people around the world. I t is the modern version of the m et r ic sy st em .

• Gravity is a pull which all matter exerts on all other matter, the more mass, the stronger the pull.

• W ei g h t is a measure of the pull of the earth’s gravity on an object. There are 3 main states of matter: solid , liq u id , g as

Key Vocabulary: gas, gram, length, liquid, liter, mass, meter, metric system, SI unit, solid, temperature, volume, weight

Part Four: Density

Den sit y is a measure of the amount of matter that occupies a particular space. I t is determined by dividing the mass of an object by its volume.

• Warm (air, water, magma) rises because it is less dense. Cold (air, water, magma) sinks because it is more dense. As pressure increases so does density.

• Sp ecif ic Gr av it y is the comparison of the density of a substance to the density of water.

Key Vocabulary: mass, volume, density, specific gravity, water displacement

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Which w ould be the best tools to measure the density of a small piece of silver ore?

2 . Which of the follow ing puts the steps of a scientific experiment in the correct order?

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 2

3 . A student found the rock show n here and w eighed it to determine its mass. What steps should the student take to find its density?

ADetermine its volume by how much water it displaces, then divide mass by volume.

B Determine its volume by multiplying length x width x height, the divide mass by volume.

CCrush the rock to a powder and measure its volume in a graduated cylinder, then divide mass by volume.

DDetermine its volume using the formula for the volume of a sphere (V = 4/ 3πr3), then divide mass by volume.

4 . A student set up an experiment to test the effects of soil compaction on plant grow th. The student put equal w eights of moist soil into 10 containers, planted a bean seed one inch deep in each container, and then firmly compacted the soil in 5 of the containers. After the seeds sprouted, the student measured the height of each plant every day and kept a record of the results. What else must the student do over time to ensure a valid experiment?

FWater any of the plants that seem to be growing more slowly than the others

GWater the plants in compacted soil more than those in uncompacted soil

HWater all of the containers the same amount and at the same time

JWater any container in which the soil feels dry

5 . One step in determining the metal content of a ring is to find the volume of the ring. What is the volume of this ring?

6 . The table below show s the results of an experiment .

EVAPORATI ON

Use the grid below to construct a line graph showing the relationship between the temperatures of the water and the average amount of water that evaporated. Be sure to title your graph, label each axis, and indicate the appropriate units for each axis.

Applicat ion- This is w here YOU do the w ork!!!

One the following page, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the page accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 3

Mapping the Earth

( ES. 3a- d)

ES.3 The student will investigate and understand how to read and interpret maps, globes, models, charts, and

imagery. Key concepts include...

฀a) maps (bathymetric, geologic, topographic, and weather) and star charts;

฀b) imagery (aerial photography and satellite images);

฀c) direction and measurements of distance on any map or globe; and

฀d) location by latitude and longitude and topographic profiles.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Scientists use maps, globes, models, charts, technology and imagery to interpret and measure the world. How do they use these tools to interpret the world?

Part One: Latitude and Longitude and Basic Map Reading

Scientists use many different types of maps to relate information. Here are a few of them and what they show…

•Road map – shows the locations of primary and secondary roadways, cities, places of interest

•Topographic map – shows the elevation of a specific location (see Part Two for more detail)

•Bathymetric map – shows the depths of the ocean floor or large bodies of water

•Geologic map – shows the underlying geologic formations, fault lines, etc. of an area

•Star Chart – a map showing the location of constellations, planets, and deep sky objects in the sky

•Weather Map – a map showing current or forecast weather conditions for an area

•Physical Relief map – a map that uses color and shading to indicate differences in elevation

•Globe – a map of the world on a sphere (the most accurate projection)

An imaginary grid system is used on Earth to precisely locate places.

can be used for longitude and it doesn’t need an East or West label.

• Meridians are closer together at the poles, further apart at the equator. They converge at the poles.

• Parallels NEVER meet .

• When stating locations using latitude and longitude you must always put the latitude (N/ S) first and the longitude (E/ W) second, separated by a comma. For example, 39oN, 78oW. Together these are called the coor d in at es of a location.

• The latitude and longitude measurements are expressed in d eg r ees.

• Degrees can be separated into 60 m in u t es and they are represented by an apostrophe. For example, 39o30’.

• Those can be further divided into 60 secon d s and they are represented by quotation marks. For example, 39o30’28” .

The world can be divided into h em isp h er es which means half of a sphere. They are:

•Northern – the portion of the world that is north of the Equator

•Southern – the portion of the world that is south the Equator

•Eastern – the portion of the world that is east of the Prime Meridian

•Western – the portion of the world that is west of the Prime Meridian

•Every location on Earth is either north or south of the Equator AND east or west of the Prime Meridian.

This will directly relate to the latitude/ longitude coordinates. Things you find on a map to help you identify features:

• com p ass r ose – This appears in many different forms but is also referred to as the North Arrow because it shows you where north is in relation to the map you are observing.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 5

•leg en d – This is a section of the map that shows you what the different symbols mean. You will usually find symbols for different road types, schools, parks, airports, hospitals, etc.

•m ap scale – This is a method for telling you what the relationship between the paper and the ground is mathematically. There are 3 types:

O The b ar scale (also called a graphic scale) shows you what the distance on the paper is that represents a mile or a kilometer.

O The v er b al scale is where the map will tell you what distance on the map is compared to the ground, like 1” = 1 mile.

O The r ep r esen t at iv e scale is a ratio…1: 100,000 for example. This would mean 1 unit on the paper is equal to 100,000 of the same units on the ground. This is useful for any units. I n the example

mentioned, 1 centimeter on paper is equal to 100,000 centimeters on the ground, or 1 inch on paper is equal to 100,000 inches on the ground. You can use any units you like.

There are 24 standard t im e zo n es.

•Each one covers about 15o of longitude, which is determined by taking the 360o for the sphere of the Earth and dividing it by 24 hours in a day.

•Each zone covers approximately 15o of longitude, with 7½ o on each side of the center of the zone. For example, at the Prime Meridian (0o longitude) the zone covers 7½ o east of that line and 7½ o west of that line.

•For the continental United States, the names of the zones, beginning on the east coast are: Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific with each zone being 1 hour behind as you move from east to west .

Key Vocabulary: bar scale, compass rose, coordinates, degree, Equator, hemisphere, I nternational Date Line, latitude, legend, longitude, map scale, meridian, minute, parallel, Prime Meridian, representative scale, second, time zones, verbal scale

Part Tw o: Topographic Maps

Top o g r ap h ic M ap s show relief using con t ou r lines. Relief is the highs and lows of the land. Elev at io n refers to the height above sea level of a certain place.

Contour lines are lines drawn to connect points of the same elevation.

A con t ou r in t er v al is the difference in elevation between neighboring contour lines.

To make reading easier, on most maps, some lines are made heavier and the elevation marked…in d ex co n t ou r . A depression is a lower point on Earth than the surrounding area. These are shown on the topographic maps by

placing tic marks that point towards the center…called h ach u r e lines. Example: a crater, a sinkhole. Gen t le slo p es are indicated by wide spaces between contour lines.

St eep slop es are indicated by contour lines that are very close together. I n fact, ‘The closer the lines, the steeper the climb’.

A p r of ile is a vertical section or side view.

Hilltops are shown by concentric contour lines and the number values are going up. Valleys are indicated by a change in contour intervals with the number values going down. Rivers and streams are shown with a v contour line. The V always points upstream.

A marked point of known and documented elevation is a b en ch m ar k . A b at h y m et r ic m ap measures water depth across an underwater sea

Key Vocabulary: benchmark, contour, contour interval, elevation, gentle slope, hachure, index contour, profile, steep slope, topographic map

Part Three: Global Positioning Systems

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are used to identify places on Earth. I t uses a system of sat ellit es (24) that orbit the Earth, send out radio signals and communicate with base stations (or control stations) and user equipment. You need at least THREE satellites to find a 3-D loction.

Things GPS can tell you:

•Lat it u d e/ Lo n g it u d e

•Speed of travel and direction of travel

•elev at io n

Things GPS cannot tell you: temperature (that’s measured by a thermometer…but you knew that!...right?) When using a hand held unit, you record locations by marking them with a w ay p oin t .

Key Vocabulary: elevation, GPS, latitude, longitude, satellite, waypoint

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010

Page 6

Sample SOL Questions

1 . The river show n on the topographic map flow s fastest at point —

F1

G2

H3

J4

2 . On the topographic map provided, w hat is the elevation of point I I I ?

A1260 feet

B1280 feet

C1300 feet

D1360 feet

3 . When contour lines are spaced far apart, the area show n on a topographic map has-

Agentle slopes

Bperfectly flat land

Csteep slopes

Drivers or streams

4 . The longitude of Richmond, Virginia, on the map to the right is approximately —

F75o W

G38o N

H38o W

J75o N

5 . Tw o cities on a map are 15 cm apart w ith a scale of 1 cm= 20km. How far apart are the cities on Earth?

6 . Virginia is located in w hich time zone?

A AC C

B BD D

There have been no released SOL test questions for GPS!...yet.

Application

One the following page, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the page accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 7

Minerals and Rocks

( ES. 5a, b, 6a- c)

ES.5 The student will investigate and understand how to identify major rock-forming and ore minerals based on physical and chemical properties. Key concepts include:

฀a) properties including hardness, color and streak, luster, cleavage, fracture, and unique properties;

฀b) uses of minerals.

ES.6 The student will investigate and understand how to identify common rock types based on mineral composition and textures and the rock cycle as it relates to the origin and transformation of rock types. Key concepts include:

฀a) igneous (intrusive and extrusive);

฀b) sedimentary (clastic and chemical);

฀c) metamorphic (foliated and unfoliated) rocks.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Earth undergoes regular patterns of change and natural cycles, both quickly and over time. Explain how minerals and rocks are a result of Earth’s regular patterns of change and natural cycles.

฀Mineral resources affect our everyday life. How do mineral resources affect our everyday life?

฀Scientific evidence found in various types of rock is used to identify past events and environments. Describe how rocks are used to identify past events and environments.

฀Mineral and rock resources are limited and their use impacts the environment and economy. Describe why minerals and rock resources are limited.

฀How does the use of mineral and rock resources affect our environment and economy?

Part One: Properties of Minerals

There are four basic characteristics of minerals. All minerals are…

again.

M in er als are formed out of molten earth material or magma, or when water containing dissolved ions evaporates, i.e. halite (salt) from evaporating sea water.

Minerals can be changed into different minerals by heat, pressure, or the chemical action of water.

Minerals are classified according to co m p osit ion , classes are: silicat es (formed mostly from silicon and oxygen), car b on at es (formed from the shells and skeletons of marine organism), sulfides, sulfates, halides, hydroxides, and phosphates.

Key Vocabulary: carbonates, composition, compound, crystal, element, inorganic, mineral, natural, silicates

Part Tw o: Mineral I dentification

Mineral identification refers to the way to tell one mineral from another.

•The co lor is the most obvious but one of the least reliable methods of identifying minerals.

• Har d n ess is a measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched. The M o h s hardness scale lists hardness of ten minerals with 1 being softest and 10 the hardest . We can determine the approximate hardness of a mineral by running a group of tests. Scratch the mineral in question with a fingernail, penny, iron nail, or glass slide. I f the mineral shows a scratch mark from one of the testing materials, the mineral is said to be less hard than the mineral that scratched it. Example: A piece of pink feldspar will not be scratched by a fingernail, penny, or an iron nail, but will be scratched by a glass slide. The feldspar is said to be harder than the first three testing materials but not as hard as the glass slide.

•Lu st er describes how light is reflected from a mineral’s surface. Luster gives you an indication of how metallic looking a mineral is. The two main ways that geologists categorize a mineral's luster is metallic or non-metallic. M et allic minerals look like metal (they may or may not be shiny), while n on - m et allic minerals vary greatly in their appearance and are usually described as shiny, pearly, waxy, glassy, etc.

•St r eak is the color of the mineral when it is broken up into powder. Streak is a test used by a geologist to see the color of the mineral under the top layer or coating on the mineral. The mineral is rubbed on a "streak plate", which is a piece of porcelain. When the mineral is rubbed across the streak plate some of the mineral is broken off and ground into a powder. This allows the geologist to see under the outer layer

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 9

which could have a different color due to the mineral being exposed to the atmosphere. When minerals are exposed to the atmosphere, gasses like oxygen can chemically combine with the mineral to change its outer color.

•Cleav ag e & Fr act u r e refer to the way the mineral breaks. Some minerals have a tendency to split or crack along parallel or flat p lan es. This property is easily seen in some minerals and you can test the mineral by breaking it with a hammer or splitting off sheets with a pen knife. These planes along which the mineral breaks are called cleavage planes. I f the mineral splits easily along these planes the mineral is then said to have perfect cleavage. Fracture is related to cleavage. Fracture occurs when a mineral breaks at random lines instead of at consistent cleavage planes. Many minerals that have no cleavage or poor cleavage fracture easily.

•Some minerals have the same color and streak. I n order to tell them apart you can perform an acid t est . You can use something as weak as vinegar. I f it bubbles and fizzes (reacting with the carbon dioxide in the mineral) it is a carbonate mineral.

•One other test that you can perform is to determine a mineral’s density. When that density is compared to water it is called sp ecif ic g r av it y .

Key Vocabulary: acid test, cleavage, color, fracture, hardness, luster, metallic, Mohs, non-metallic, plane, specific gravity, streak

•Examples: Bau x it e can be refined to make aluminum. Hem at it e can be refined to make iron. Halit e is salt. Gr ap h it e is used to make pencil leads and as an industrial lubricant . Su lf u r is widely used in

medicines. M ag n et it e is used as magnets. Talc is used to make powder. Rock forming minerals:

•Feld sp ar s are the most abundant minerals found on the surface of the Earth. Feldspars can be glassy white, pink, and a variety of other colors. They contain silica, aluminum and potassium.

•Clay s are usually composed of weathered feldspar.

•M icas are minerals that can be split into very thin sheets. Mica can be clear to very dark green or black in color.

•Hor n b len d e is a mineral that is composed of magnesium, iron, silica, and aluminum. I t is found in many igneous rocks.

•Qu ar t z is a very common mineral that is found on the surface of the Earth. I ts chemical formula is SiO2 (silicon dioxide). Sand is quartz crystals that have been weathered into small pieces.

•Galen a is unique because it is extremely heavy compared to its size. I n other words, it has a high specific gravity.

•I n Virginia, some of the important minerals are k y an it e and p y r it e . Additionally, calcit e is found in every cavern in Virginia and formed from the breakdown of limestone by acidic water. I t will bubble and fizz when a weak acid is applied.

Key Vocabulary: bauxite, calcite, clay, diamond, feldspar, galena, gem, graphite, halite, hematite, hornblende, kyanite, magnetite, mica, ore, pyrite, quartz, sulfur, talc

Part Four: Rock I dentification and Rock Types

The solid part of the earth is composed of substances collectively known as r ock .

Nearly every rock is composed of one or more naturally occurring inorganic crystalline substances called m in er als. The three main rock classifications are I gneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.

Rocks are classified into these groups by the way they were formed. I g n eou s rock…

• is molten material from a volcano (lav a ) or from deep inside the earth (m ag m a ) which cools and h ar d en s

•comes from the Latin word ignis which means "fire"

• are usually found near v olcan oes or d iv er g en t boundaries (separating plates)

•are classified by composition and texture

•Ex t r u siv e I gneous Rock (Volcanic) is formed on Earth’s surface when molten rock flows out of the earth (lava) and cools quickly at the surface to form fine crystals. Rocks formed in this way have a fine – grained texture. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks are Pu m ice, Basalt , and Ob sid ian .

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 10

•I n t r u siv e I gneous Rock (Plutonic) is formed in the Earth when molten rock flows upward into the more solid part of the crust . Rocks formed this way have a coarse – grained texture. Gr an it e is an example of an

intrusive igneous rock. Sed im en t ar y rock …

•can form from particles of rock, from remains of plants or animals, or from chemical reactions

•are classified by their composition and by the way they were formed

•are formed from the com p act ion and cem en t at io n of small pieces of rocks or shells are called sedimentary rocks

•are usually found near w at er

•are found in flat layers or strata. Fossils are found in these layers.

•Clast ic sedimentary rocks come from fragments of other rocks. Examples: Sh ale, San d st o n e.

• Non - clast ic o r g an ic sedimentary rock comes from the remains of organisms. Examples: coal, lim est o n e.

•Non - clast ic ch em ical sedimentary rock is formed when mineral grains dissolved in water are precipitated

•are classified according to texture

•Foliat ed metamorphic rocks have mineral grains within the rock that are arranged in nearly parallel layers. Examples: slat e , sch ist , and g n eiss.

•Non - f oliat ed metamorphic rocks have mineral grains that change, grow and rearrange but don’t form parallel layers. Examples: q u ar t zit e, m ar b le.

Key Vocabulary: basalt, cementation, clastic, coal, compaction, convergent, cooling, divergent, extrusive, foliated, fossil, gneiss, granite, gypsum, harden, heat, igneous, intrusive, lava, limestone, magma, marble, metamorphic, minerals, non-clastic chemical, non-clastic organic, non-foliated, obsidian, pressure, pumice, quartzite, rock, rock salt, sandstone, sedimentary, schist, shale, slate, volcano, water

Part Five: The Rock Cycle

The r ock cy cl e shows how the earth's rocks are changed again and again. The rocks can be changed at times to another type of rock. The rock cycle can begin anywhere in the cycle. Here’s how it works…

•I gneous rocks start as magma. Technically, ALL rocks start as magma.

•The m ag m a (molten rock under the surface) and lav a (molten rock on the surface) cools and hardens into igneous rock.

•The igneous rock then breaks apart over time through the process of weathering.

•These bits of broken rock, called sediments, are washed away by rains (eosion) and deposited in a river.

•These pieces of igneous rocks are compacted and cemented together with other bits of rock and form a sedimentary rock called co n g lo m er at e .

•Over time sedimentary rocks can be buried by earthquakes or other geologic processes.

•Being buried deep under the surface in areas of high t em p er at u r es and pressures or coming in contact with magma can cause these sedimentary rocks to change to metamorphic rocks.

•Metamorphic, sedimentary or igneous rocks can be remelted to form magma, beginning at the beginning

again.

Rocks are changed by processes such as…

•weathering and erosion (and deposition) to form sediments

•h eat and p r essu r e – when existing rocks are buried deep and are heated by a nearby source of magma Key Vocabulary: cementation, compaction, conglomerate, cooling, deposition, erosion, hardening, heat, lava, magma, melting, pressure, rock cycle, sediment, temperature, weathering

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 11

Sample SOL Questions

3 . The chart show s the Mohs scale for measuring the hardness of minerals. A mineral that can scratch fluorite and can be scratched by orthoclase is able to —

Ascratch both calcite and quartz

Bbe scratched by both calcite and quartz

Cscratch calcite and be scratched by quartz

Dscratch quartz and be scratched by calcite

4 . When granite is subjected to high enough amounts of heat and pressure to change it but not melt it, granite changes into —

5 . Of these igneous rocks, w hich w ould contain the lar g est crystals?

6 . The rock show n is composed primarily of large crystals that w ere formed by —

Acooling magma

Bcompacting shells

Cweathering

Dfaulting

7 . The diagram on the right show s a test for w hich mineral property?

8 . Which of these can determine the size of grains in igneous rocks?

Application

One the following page, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the page accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 12

Resources

( ES. 7 a- e, 12 e)

ES.7 The student will investigate and understand the differences between renewable and nonrenewable resources. Key concepts include:

฀a) fossil fuels, minerals, rocks, water, and vegetation;

฀b) advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources;

฀c) resources found in Virginia;

฀d) making informed judgments related to resource use and its effects on Earth systems;

฀e) environmental costs and benefits.

ES.12 The student will investigate and understand the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and the interrelationship of geologic processes, biologic processes, and human activities on its composition and dynamics. Key concepts include:

฀e) potential atmospheric compositional changes due to human, biologic, and geologic activity.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Natural resources are limited and can be classified as renewable or nonrenewable. Explain the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources.

฀A variety of natural resources can be found in Virginia. Summarize the ways that the physical characteristics of Virginia determine the type of natural resources.

฀Overuse of resources can have negative environmental impact. Analyze how the environment is impacted by our use of resources.

Part One: Renew able and Nonrenew able Resources

Ren ew ab le resources…

•can be replaced by nature at a rate close to the rate at which they are used

•includes vegetation, water, and soil

Non r en ew ab le resources…

•are renewed very slowly or not at all (We use it faster than it can be replaced.)

•includes coal, oil, natural gas and minerals

Common misconception – Renewable does not mean recyclable. Recycle means to reuse. Key Vocabulary: non-renewable, renewable, recycle

Part Tw o: Environmental I mpacts of Energy Resources

Fossil Fu els, such as coal, oil and gas, are derived from prehistoric plant and animal material that had decomposed and been altered by heat and pressure over the years.

•Advantage: A quick, easy source of energy that does not cost that much.

•Disadvantages: Causes pollutions in many ways – burning fossil fuels produces CO2, sulfur and nitrogen gases. Oil spills cause much damage to the plants and animals in the surrounding environment . We are running out of fossil fuels!

•Atmospheric Effects: Releases gases into the atmosphere- creating smog, acid rain, etc.

Coal, Natural Gas and Petroleum (Oil) are composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon. The hydrocarbons with a lower molecular weight are usually gasses. The heavier ones tend to be the oils. Once again, oil and gas are created much like coal is. Unfortunately, gas and oil are both Non-renewable resources.

Nu clear en er g y is an alternate energy source produced from atomic reactions (the splitting of atoms and the releasing of energy – Fission).

•Advantage: I t is an alternate source of energy – when fossil fuels are being used up – we can turn to nuclear. I t releases no harmful gases into the atmosphere. (ex. No CO2, No Sulfur, No Nitrogen – thus – No Acid Rain).

•Disadvantages: The waste material produced – Nuclear Waste. I t is high radioactive. Hard to find places to store it . Have very long half lives – can stay radioactive for 10,000 years.

•Atmospheric Effects: Normal operation of Nuclear Power Plants keeps radiation exposure to the surrounding environment at a minimum; however, a problem at the plant, such as a melt down, could release radiation into the environment and into the atmosphere.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 14

Solar En er g y refers to the energy the earth receives from the sun in the form of Solar Radiation. Devices called solar panels are placed facing the sun in order to capture solar radiation. The light energy is then converted into electrical energy.

•Advantages: I t is a clean source of energy. No pollutants or harmful radiation.

•Disadvantages: The cost of setting up a home or business with solar panels. The problems with cloudy days

– or multiple cloudy days.

•Atmospheric Effects: None.

Geo t h er m al En er g y uses the heat from magma inside the Earth to heat water and produce steam in a power plant. The steam is pressurized and then spins turbines that run generators to make electricity.

•Advantages: The Geothermal Plants are very reliable and clean. They are not radioactive. They do not produce pollutants. There is no threat of any lethal substances being spilled into the environment – such as oil, wastes.

•Disadvantages: I t is not as convenient as fossil fuels. So far, it is not being used world wide. I n order to reach the reservoirs, it is necessary to drill into the Earth.

•Atmospheric Effects: None.

Hy d r oel ect r ic En er g y involves the use of a dam to hold water on one side has generators at the base of the dam that converts the energy of the fast flowing water into electricity.

•Advantages: I t is a renewable resource. The water can be used over and over. I t is a clean source of electricity – no radiation, no wastes.

•Disadvantages: Could cause flooding of surrounding areas. I t costs a lot of money to build a dam.

•Atmospheric Effects: None.

W in d En er g y involves the use of machines called Aerogenerators (more commonly windmills). These are built to convert wind energy into electricity. The wind turns the rotor blades and these power generators.

•Advantages: I t is a clean source of power.

•Disadvantages: The wind is un-predictable. Wind velocity that is too slow produces no electricity. Wind that is too fast can damage the machine. I t costs a lot too develop and built the machines. There are problems in transporting electricity to sites where it is needed.

•Atmospheric Effects: None.

Tid al En er g y involves placing generators in water and allowing the movement of the tides (flowing in and out) to power the generators thus producing electricity.

•Advantages: A clean source of energy. No pollutants, no radiation, no chemicals. Tidal energy is an endless supply of energy.

•Disadvantages: Constructing such machines is very expensive. Wave energy varies greatly with the weather. I t would be difficult to build a device big enough in the water to convert the amount of energy in a wave to electricity. A device would be so big, that it would be dangerous to ships.

•Atmospheric Effects: None

Key Vocabulary: alternative fuel, energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric energy, nuclear energy, ozone layer, solar energy, wind energy

Part Three: Virginia Resources

Coal is Virginia’s most valuable r esou r ce. I t is a f ossil f u el and is a n on - r en ew ab le r esou r ce.

•Virginia ranks among the top ten coal producing states in the U.S.

•Coal originates from ancient plants that flourished in swamp like environments millions of years ago. This material, called p eat , was buried over time and heat and chemical processes turned it into coal. Peat is not a rock.

•The first stage of coal production where it is considered a sedimentary rock is called lig n it e . I t is soft, burns fast and has low heat output.

•The next state is called b it u m in ou s coal. I t is a sedimentary rock. About 78% of the world’s coal is this type.

•Under further heat and pressure, it turns into an t h r acit e coal…a metamorphic rock. I t burns very slowly

and has a high heat output. I t is the most efficient and the most desirable. Other Virginia resources include…

•limestone for building materials, sand & gravel for construction

•kyanite, a mineral used in electronic products

•uranium, a radioactive element used for nuclear energy production

Key Vocabulary: anthracite, bituminous, coal, fossil fuel, lignite, non-renewable resource, peat, resource

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 15

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Which of the follow ing is a renew able source of energy?

8 . The pie chart on the right show s different sources of energy. Which conclusion can be made based on this chart?

FCoal is the main source of energy.

GUse of nuclear power is increasing.

HFossil fuels make up over three-quarters of our energy consumption.

JRenewable energy sources are predominantly used

9 . Wind pow er is not typically used to generate all of the electricity needed for large cities because the —

10 . A major problem w ith depending on fossil fuels as primary energy sources is that they are —

Application

One the following page, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the page accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 16

Geologic Processes and Features

( ES. 1e, 2e, 8 b- c, 11d, 12e)

ES.1e The student will plan and conduct investigations in which:

฀e) a scientific viewpoint is constructed and defended (the nature of science). ES.2e The student will demonstrate scientific reasoning and logic by:

฀evaluating evidence for scientific theories.

ES.8b,c The student will investigate and understand geologic processes including plate tectonics. Key concepts include:

฀b) how geologic processes are evidenced in the physiographic provinces of Virginia including the Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and Appalachian Plateau; .

฀c) tectonic processes (subduction, rifting and sea floor spreading, and continental collision).

ES.11d The student will investigate and understand that oceans are complex, interactive physical, chemical, and biological systems and are subject to long- and short -term variations. Key concepts include:

฀d) features of the sea floor (continental margins, trenches, mid-ocean ridges, and abyssal plains) reflect tectonic processes;

ES.12e The student will investigate and understand the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and the interrelationship of geologic processes, biologic processes, and human activities on its composition and dynamics. Key concepts include:

฀e) potential atmospheric compositional changes due to human, biologic, and geologic activity.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere change constantly. How does the movement of material in the asthenosphere affect the lithosphere?

฀Evidence from seismic waves provides information about earth’s composition. How does evidence from seismic waves provide information about earth’s composition?

฀Plate tectonics causes changes in the earth’s surface. How do plate tectonics change the earth’s surface?

Part One: Earth's Composition

The Earth is composed of four different layers. Many geologists believe that as the Earth cooled the heavier, denser materials sank to the center and the lighter materials rose to the top. These four layers are…

•The cr u st is the outer layer of the Earth and is made of the lightest materials (rock- basalts and granites). The crust is the layer that you live on, and it is the most widely studied and understood. I t is cool and brittle (rocky).

•The m an t le is much hotter and has the ability to flow . I t is the largest/ thickest layer. The mantle is

composed of very hot, dense, flowing rock. The material in the mantle flows because of convection currents. This causes the brittle crust to move as it floats on top of the mantle. I t is like a warm plastic. I t is also made up of two parts…the lit h osp h er e (which is the top portion of the mantle as well as the crust) and the ast h en osp h er e (which is the lower part of the mantle that has the convection currents) .

• The o u t er cor e is even hotter, consists of heavy metals (nickel and iron) and is liquid.

•The in n er cor e is hotter still with pressures so great that the heavy metals it is made of (nickel and iron)

that they are in a solid state in spite of having the hottest temperatures. There are two types of crust material…

• The co n t in en t al cr u st is thicker but lighter. I t is made up of mostly g r an it e which is less dense.

•The ocean ic cr u st is thinner but heavier. I t is made up of mostly b asalt which is more dense.

Con v ect io n currents are a circular current caused by the difference in temperatures from the bottom to the top of the mantle. I t is because of these currents that the plates of the Earth have moved in the past and are moving today. These plate movements cause earthquakes, mountain building, and volcanism.

Key Vocabulary: asthenosphere, basalt, continental crust, convection, crust, granite, inner core, lithosphere, mantle, oceanic crust, outer core

Part Tw o: Plate Tectonic Processes and Landforms

The Earth's crust is broken into many pieces. These pieces are called plates. The movement of these plates is called p lat e t ect o n ics.

•There are twelve main plates on the Earth's surface.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 18

•I n 1912 Alfred Wegener introduced this theory, but he did not fully understand what caused the plates to move.

•Scientists believe that 250 millions years ago the Earth's seven continents were all grouped together into a super continent called Pan g aea .

•Scientists have used m ag n et ic bands in rocks to prove that the continents have drifted apart . This also

explains why fossils of tropical plants and animals that have been found in places like Antarctica and Greenland, and why fossils of fish found in high mountain regions.

A plate boundary occurs where two plates come together. There are three kinds of plate boundaries.

•A con v er g en t boundary is where two plates collide to form mountains or one plate riding above the other driving the thinner denser plate down into the mantle creating a su b d u ct io n zone. Tr en ch es form at subduction zones. They are the deepest part of the oceans and the lowest points on the crust of the Earth. Subduction zones are areas of the world in which high amounts of earthquakes and volcanoes are present. There are 3 types of convergent boundaries, all of which are the result of co m p r ession forces (pressing together).

-ocean-to-ocean, where 2 oceanic plates collide, forming a subduction zone, a trench and a volcanic

islan d ar c chain (example: Aleutian I sland Arc Chain, Alaska and the Japanese I sland Arc Chain) - ocean-to-continent, where an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, forming a subduction

zone, a trench and con t in en t al v olcan ic ar c (example: Andes Mountains of South America)

-continent -to-continent, where 2 continental plates collide forming f old ed and f au lt ed mountains with no volcanoes (example: Appalachian Mountains and Himalayan Mountains)

• A d iv er g en t boundary is where two plates are moving in opposite directions. Divergent boundaries cause the oceans to spread apart (as a result of t en si on force, pulling apart) while convergent boundaries cause the oceans to shrink. There are two types of divergent boundaries.

- seaf loo r sp r ead in g is where two oceanic plates are moving apart and a m id - o cean r id g e is formed. As they spread apart magma fills the void causing the formation of new crust . This separating is called r if t in g . I n the middle of the mid-ocean ridge is a rift valley (example: Mid-

Atlantic Ridge).

-a r if t v alley can also be the result of two continental plates moving apart . I t is the same as seafloor spreading except that it occurs on land (example: The Great African Rift Valley).

•A t r an sf or m boundary is where two plates are sliding past each other by a force called sh ear in g . Transform boundaries are like tears in the Earth's crust . An example is the San Andreas Fault. This boundary type has no volcanoes.

Key Vocabulary: compression, continental drift, continental volcanic arc, convergent, divergent, faulting, folding, island arc, magnetic, mid-ocean ridge, Pangaea, plate tectonics, rifting, rift valley, seafloor spreading, shearing, subduction, tension, transform, trench

Part Three: Mountains

The movement of tectonic plates is responsible for the formation of mountains.

•Fold ed mountains are a wave-like formation. Continental plates are pushed together and form tall mountains.

•Fau lt - b lock mountains occur when the plates are pushed together and break from the collision. These mountains have very rough linear peaks. I f one fault is present, it forms a tilted mountain. I f two faults are present a lifted mountain is formed.

•Dom e mountains form when plate collisions push an area of the crust up into a dome shape. The crust doesn't snap and break as in fault -block mountains.

Key Vocabulary: dome, fault -block, folded

Part Four: Earthquakes and Faults

Ear t h q u ak e activity is associated with all plate boundaries because those plates are in motion. The plates do not move smoothly and evenly.

•When a plate moves suddenly a great amount of energy is released in the form of w av e energy. These waves are what cause the damage from an earthquake.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 19

•The f ocu s is the point in Earth’s interior where energy is released. This is where the first movement occurs.

•The ep icen t er is the point at the surface above the focus.

Seism ic W av es are the energy waves that move outward from the earthquake focus and make the ground quake. There are three types of seismic waves.

•Pr im ar y waves (P wave) move through Earth and cause particles in rocks to move in a push-pull motion. The force involved is com p r ession .

•Secon d ar y waves (S wave) move through Earth, causing particles to move side to side at right angles to

the direction of the wave. The force involved is sh ear in g .

•Su r f ace or Lon g waves (L wave) move on the surface giving particles an elliptical and more rolling

motion. When P and S waves reach the surface, they set up the L wave. The force involved is t en si on . Magnitude is the measure of the strength of the seismic waves that have been sent out from the focus.

•A seism o g r ap h is an instrument that records the length and severity of an earthquake on a

seism o g r am . The P- and S-wave information from 3 geographic locations is required to determine the

actual location of an earthquake.

• The Rich t er scale is used to measure the strength of an earthquake. The scale ranges from a low of 1 to a high of 10.

•The M er calli scale measures severity of damage of earthquakes that occurred before the invention of the

seismograph. This scale ranges from a low of I to a high of XI I .

A f au lt is a break or crack in the Earth’s surface along which movement has occurred. On either side of most faults is a h an g in g wall (the rock above the fault) and a f oot wall (the rock below the fault) . There are 4 basic types of faults.

•A t h r u st fault is like a reverse fault that is not only pushed together but where the hanging wall is pushed over and on top of the foot wall.

•St r ik e- slip Faults are caused by shearing forces when rocks slide past each other.

Key Vocabulary: compression, earthquake, energy, epicenter, fault, focus, foot, hanging, L, long, Mercalli, normal, P, primary, reverse, Richter, S, secondary, seismic waves, seismogram, seismograph, shearing, stress, strike-slip, surface, tension, thrust, wave

Part Five: Volcanoes

The motion of the Earth's plates help scientists to understand why volcanoes occur. Volcanoes are openings in the earth’s surface where magma is released as lava. M ag m a is molten rock that is under the Earth’s crust. Lav a is molten rock that that reaches the Earth’s surface.

•Active volcanoes spew sm o k e, st eam , ash , cinder, lava.

•Volcanoes occur at: divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and hot spots.

• The cr at er is depression at top of cone.

•The co n e is the body of the volcano.

•The volcanic n eck forms when a dormant volcano has magma hardened in the vent and over many years the cone erodes away leaving this igneous column behind.

•A cald er a forms when the top of the volcano collapses into magma chamber, creating a deeper

depression, sometimes forming a crater lake.

Volcanoes are classified by the eruption type, magma type and by the volcanic cone shape.

•Sh ield volcanoes were named by I celandic people because the shape reminded them of a warriors shield laid down. Shield volcanoes form from hot, runny lava that is erupted from the volcano through its summit and the many side vents and fissures throughout the volcano's flanks (sides). Shield volcanoes are low, very broad, and gently sloping. Shield volcanoes have quiet eruptions. Ho t sp o t volcanoes are shield volcanoes. They form because of a weak spot in the crust rather than from plate boundary action.

•Cin d er cones get their name from the material that forms them, cinders. Cinder cones are the simplest volcanic formation. They form from explosions of red, hot magma cinders and ash. These cinders and ash settle around the main vent and build a steep sided cone. Very little lava is erupted from a cinder cone. Cinder cones very rarely rise to more than 1,000 feet above the surrounding landscape. Cinder cones are known for their very violent, explosive, exciting eruptions.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 20

•Co m p osi t e cones are formed from a combination of eruptions. Composite volcanoes have quiet eruptions with easy flowing lava and violent eruptions with explosives tephra (lava that has hardened and broken into various size pieces, the debris thrown from volcanoes) layers made of alternating lava and tephra pieces. A large composite cone will be built with many layers of ash and lava. Composite cones are the most common type of volcanic cone.

Key Vocabulary: ash, caldera, cinder cone, composite, cone, crater, hot spot, lava, magma, magma chamber, neck, shield, smoke, steam, vent

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Even though the Earth’s inner core is hotter than the liquid outer core, it is still solid because —

Athe heat rising from the inner core is melting the outer core

Bthere is more water in the outer core and it dilutes the materials

Cthe outer core is farther from the center, and there is less gravity holding it together

Dthe pressure from all of Earth’s layers keeps it in a solid state

2 . All of the follow ing support the theory of continental drift ex cep t that —

Fthe continents seem to fit together like pieces of a puzzle

Gthere are similar fossils on different continents

Hmountain ranges in South America and Africa line up

Jthe North Pole and Antarctica are covered with ice

3 . The mountain show n is composed of deformed sedimentary layers. They are located near a tectonic plate boundary and are still increasing in elevation due to —

4 . Which of the follow ing is n o t considered a result of the movement of tectonic plates?

5 . Geologists think that parts of the Appalachian Mountains formed originally from sediments accumulating in shallow sw amps. The w eight of the sediments caused the area beneath them to sink, allow ing more sediments to accumulate. The process continued until many layers had formed. Then tectonic processes folded the layered sediments into a range of mountains. What evidence for this theory can be found in the current structure of these mountains?

ASome rocks making up these mountains show signs of volcanism.

BThe form of these mountains is very eroded.

CThe mountains exhibit folded layers of rocks containing fossils from shallow water.

DThe mountain range consists of parallel ridges of different ages

6 . Which provides the best evidence for the theory that faults and volcanoes are results of tectonic plate interactions?

FFaults on tectonic plates are in constant motion, but volcanoes may not erupt for many years.

GFaults and volcanoes existed long before there were tectonic plates.

HTectonic plates that have many faults do not usually have volcanoes.

JFaults and volcanoes are often found at tectonic plate boundaries.

7 . The diagram show n illustrates w hich geological process?

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 21

8 . When the sea floor spreads apart, volcanoes and ridges are formed because —

Asediments are deposited where the floor spreads, building ridges

Bas the plates pull apart, magma moves to the surface, building ridges

Cocean water pushes down on the surrounding sea floor, pushing up ridges

Dunderwater earthquakes lift the sea floor into long ridges

9 . The Earth’s mantle is made up of very hot material that rises to the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks, reheats, and rises again, constantly repeating the cycle. This action, w hich causes the Earth’s crust to move, is know n as —

10 . One part of California is on the Pacific Plate, w hile the remainder of the state is on the North American Plate. The tw o plates are moving to the northw est at different speeds, causing one plate to slide past the other. This movement in plates creates a —

11 . Seismic w aves generated by an earthquake at point R are recorded at locations W and X. Which pair of seismographs is more accurate?

12 . Compared to the Rocky Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains are much —

Applicat ion

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 22

Earthquake Terms: Define the terms below. Also, identify the term that matches the letter in the diagram.

Seismic Waves: Complete the missing information for the table below.

Seismic

Waves

Wave

Letter

Wave

Name

Order of

Arrival

Motion

Force

Volcanoes: Complete the missing information for the table below.

Picture:

Example:

Type:

Magma

Type:

Eruption

Info: Slope

Info:

Where found:

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 24

Freshw ater Resources/ Geologic Processes

( ES. 8 b, 9a- e)

ES.8 The student will investigate and understand geologic processes including plate tectonics. Key concepts include:

฀b) processes (faulting, folding, volcanism, metamorphism, weathering, erosion, deposition, and

sedimentation) and their resulting features;

ES.9 The student will investigate and understand how freshwater resources are influenced by geologic processes and the activities of humans. Key concepts include:

฀a) processes of soil development;

฀b) development of karst topography;

฀c) identification of groundwater zones including water table, zone of saturation, and zone of aeration;

฀d) identification of other sources of fresh water including rivers, springs, and aquifers with reference to the hydrologic cycle;

฀e) dependence on freshwater resources and the effects of human usage on water quality;

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Weathering, erosion, and deposition processes change the surface of the earth and result in various landforms. Describe how do agents of erosion affect the earth’s surface.

฀Freshwater resources are influenced by geologic processes and the activities of humans. How is freshwater influenced by geologic processes?

฀Explain the ways in which humans are dependent on freshwater.

฀How do human activities impact freshwater resources?

฀Earth undergoes regular patterns of change and natural cycles, both quickly and over time. How do geologic processes affect the flow of water underground?

Part One: Physical and Chemical Weathering

W eat h er in g is the process in which rocks break down into smaller pieces. There are two methods by which this may occur. Each method has several types.

Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering, is when rocks are broken down into smaller pieces by mechanical means (wind, water, or ice) . I t does not chemically change the rock in any way.

•I ce w ed g in g is a type of mechanical weathering in which breaks in rock result from the freezing and

thawing of water. I t can also be called freeze/ thaw or frost wedging.

•Ab r asio n is a type of mechanical weathering in which breaking up of rocks occurs from their collisions

•Ex f oliat io n occurs because of winds.

• Fr ict ion of water running across rocks can weather rocks.

•Tem p er at u r e ch an g es cause weathering due to the expansion and contraction of rock materials. Chemical weathering, also called decomposition, is when rocks are broken down into smaller pieces by chemical action. Chemical weathering will occur when chemical reactions take place between the minerals in the rock & water, carbon dioxide, oxygen & acids.

•Hy d r oly sis occurs when minerals in rock react with water and the rock becomes less stable and is easily broken down into pieces.

•Car b on at io n occurs whenCO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This acid speeds up hydrolysis to form caves and sinkholes.

•Ox id at io n occurs when metallic elements react with oxygen; usually found in Fe (iron) bearing minerals (form iron oxide or rust) .

•Plan t s produce acid s that seep into rock and produce cracks in the rock.

Key Vocabulary: abrasion, animal activity, carbonation, chemical weathering, exfoliation, friction, hydrolysis, ice wedging, mechanical weathering, oxidation, plant acids, plant roots, temperature changes, weathering

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 25

Part Tw o: Soil Formation

Soil is a mixture of minerals, water, gases and h u m u s (decomposed or decomposing plant and animal material); capable of supporting plant growth. Soil development starts with the weathering of bedrock. Or g an ic material (living or once living things) must be present in order to have soil. Residual soil is soil that has bedrock as its parent material. Transported soil is formed from parent material left by winds, rivers, or glaciers, or soil that has been moved from its original location. A layer of soil is a h or izo n and all of the horizons together form a soil

p r of ile. Soil profile consists of three man horizons: A- t o p soil (humus), B- subsoil- minerals leached from layer A(less humus), C- partially weathered bedrock. You may also see O- (organic layer) and p ar en t r ock (bedrock from which soil forms) included as horizons.

Key Vocabulary: horizon, humus, organic, parent rock, soil profile, topsoil

Part Three: Erosion and Mass Wasting

Er osio n is the removal and transport of earth materials by natural agents. I t results in d ep osi t io n (the depositing or laying down) of sediments elsewhere.

•Common agents of soil erosion are gravity, glaciers, wind, and water.

• M ass w ast in g is the movement of eroded fragments down a slope by gravity. Slow mass movement

(cr eep ) is a slow, imperceptible downslope movement of the soil. Rapid movement ( lan d slid e) is the sudden movement of a mass of bedrock or loose rock. Slu m p is a rapid rotational movement where a portion of a hillside slips.

Water picks up speed and energy as it flows downhill due to gravity. Ru n of f is the water that does not soak into the ground or evaporate. Water from run-off travels along the ground, eventually emptying into streams, lakes or oceans. Some of the factors affecting runoff are:

•the amount of rain that falls

•the amount of vegetation on the land

•the time span over which it falls

•the slop e of the land (steepness)

Key Vocabulary: creep, deposition, erosion, landslide, mass wasting, runoff, slope, slump

Part Four: River Mechanics and Deposition

Stream erosion forms a deep and wide channel carrying many sizes of sediments. A ch an n el is the main part of the stream where the majority of the water flows. The stream bank is the part of the stream channel that is above water. The stream bed is the part of stream channel that is below the water. Streams are classified by their ages. Each age can be identified by landforms, the v el ocit y , or speed, of the water and its car r y in g ab ilit y (the amount and size of sediments that it transports). Rivers always carve out a v - sh ap ed v alley .

•Young streams flow quickly through a valley and has steep sides. Large boulders can be moved by the

fast moving water. This digs out the bottom of the water, deepening and widening the channel. This amount and size of sediment is called either b ed load or t r act ion .

•Mature streams flow slower and starts to curve or meander through a valley. The velocity of the water in mature streams can not carry boulders. Large rocks can be bounced along the bottom. These bouncing rocks are called salt at ion .

•Old Streams flow slowly through a wide, flat f loo d p lain . The smallest sediments are found in this water.

These smaller sediments are either the su sp en d ed lo ad (the sediments that suspended in the column of water) or the d issolv ed lo ad (the dissolved material).

River water starts out in gullies & small streams; eventually these branching arms allow water to flow into a river. River systems consist of t r ib u t ar ies, which are small streams that feed into rivers, the watershed, which is the land from which the water runs into the streams, and channel, which is the path that the stream follows.

p ir acy is where one tributary overcomes another and they join together.

•At the end of the river, sediments being carried by water are deposited.

•A d el t a forms when a river hits a larger body of water the velocity decreases dramatically and sediments

will settle in a fan shape.

• An allu v ial f an forms when sediments are deposited in a triangle shape at the base of a mountain stream.

•The drainage basin is the area of land where a stream gets it water.

•A m ean d er is a curve in a stream.

•On the outside of the curve, the water moves fastest and cuts into the banks, forming a cu t b an k . This is a feature caused by er osio n .

•On the inside of the curve, the water moves slower and drops heavier particles, forming a p oin t b ar .

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 26

•The floodplain is the broad, flat valley floor that gets covered with water when a stream floor.

•An ox b o w lak e is a meander that has closed off forming a lake.

Key Vocabulary: alluvial fan, bedload, carrying ability, channel, delta, cut bank, dissolved load, erosion, floodplain, meander, oxbow lake, point bar, saltation, stream piracy, suspended load, traction, tributary, v-shaped valley, velocity

Part Five: Glaciers

A g lacier is a ‘river’ of ice. There are two main types of glaciers. A v alley g lacier is one that is found in the valleys of mountainous areas. A con t in en t al g lacier is one that is found covering large land masses like Antarctica. Glaciers dig out areas, breaking up and picking up the rock below and depositing it further down the glacier, acting like a bulldozer. Sometimes these pieces get pushed along the side of the glacier. Either one, at the end or along the sides, the debris forms a m or ain e. Glaciers form u - sh ap ed v alley s.

Key Vocabulary: continental glacier, glacier, moraine, u-shaped valley, valley glacier

Part Six: Karst Topography

Kar st Topography refers to landforms made from dissolving lim est on e (a sedimentary rock commonly found in the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia) . Karst Topography is characterized by several features that are produced by acidic groundwater dissolving limestone.

•St alact it es form when water drips from top and calcite solidifies. A mnemonic device for remembering this one is to remember the ‘c’ in stalactite means it is coming from the ceiling and it is holding ‘tite’ (tight).

•St alag m it es form when dissolved calcite deposits on the floor. A mnemonic device for remembering this one is to remember the ‘g’ in stalagmite means it is coming from the ground and reaching up with all its ‘mite’ (might).

•When a stalactite and a stalagmite join together it is referred to as a colu m n .

As groundwater passes through the bedrock, it dissolves minerals (usually calcium from calci t e). Hard water contains large amounts of dissolved minerals. Soft water contains few dissolved minerals.

Key Vocabulary: calcite, cavern, column, disappearing stream, karst, limestone, sinkhole, stalactite, stalagmite

Part Seven: Groundw ater Zones and Sources of Freshw ater

Seventy-five percent of the earth is covered by water. Ninety-seven percent of earth’s water is salt water. Most of the fresh water is ‘locked up’ in the glaciers and ice caps. Less than 0.3% of all water is drinkable. Water is distributed on Earth by means of the h y d r olo g ic cy cl e, also known as the water cycle. The components of the water cycle are:

• ev ap o r at ion – when water is changed from a liquid to a gaseous state

•con d en sat ion – when water is changed from a gaseous state to a liquid state in the atmosphere causing clouds

•p r ecip it at ion – when the liquid water is too heavy to remain in the clouds, falling to Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, hail, or freezing rain

•ev ap o t r an sp ir at io n – when moisture in a gaseous state is added to the atmosphere from trees, plants and animals

•r u n of f – where water that falls in the form of precipitation does not soak into the ground but moves on

the surface in streams, rivers, lakes or oceans

• g r ou n d w at er – water in a liquid state that moves under the surface of the Earth

I t is found in surface water and in groundwater. Gr o u n d w at er is water that seeps down into soil and fills in the spaces (pores) between soil particles. Porosity is the percentage of a material’s volume that is pore space.

Por osit y describes the pore space in a material, but it does not describe whether water can pass through the material. Permeability is the rate at which water pass through the pore spaces of a rock. Per m eab le describes soil and rock that allows water to pass through it. I m p er m eab le describes rock that water can not easily pass through.

Groundwater layers from the surface down would include zone of aeration, water table, and zone of saturation.

•Groundwater continues to soak deeper into the ground through permeable rock until it reaches a layer of impermeable rock – stopping it from moving further.

•The water backs up, filling the pores of the rock layer above the impermeable layer – this layer of ground where all pores are filled with water is the zon e of sat u r at ion .

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 27

•An aq u if er is a body of rock through which water flows or is stored. There are other features that are related to groundwater.

•Wells are drilled down to the zone of saturation. A pump must be used to bring water to the surface.

•An ar t esian w ell is a well in which water spouts out of an aquifer due to pressure from surrounding

water, so no pump is necessary.

• Where water is removed faster than it can be replaced, a con e of d ep r essi on forms.

•A sp r in g is a natural flow of groundwater that flows to the earth’s surface and flows out (source of

freshwater); most are cold springs but some are hot.

• I n a h o t sp r in g , the water is heated by magma.

•Gey ser s are hot spring that erupts periodically due to high heat and pressure underground.

Key Vocabulary: aquifer, artesian well, condensation, cone of depression, evaporation, evapotranspiration, geyser, groundwater, hot spring, hydrologic cycle, impermeable, permeability, permeable, porosity, precipitation, spring, water table, zone of aeration, zone of saturation

Part Eight: Human Usage on Water Quality

Waste from industry, fertilizers, pesticides, and salt from oceans will all pollute our groundwater. Water

con ser v at ion describes measures set forth to conserve water. Examples include: trying to find other supplies of fresh water, d esalin at io n (removal of salt), discouraging excess use of water from table, and recycling used water.

Key Vocabulary: conservation, desalination

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Which answ er below matches the number in the draw ing w ith the correct name of a sedimentary formation?

A1-delta, 2-continental rise, 3-flood plain

B1-alluvial fan, 2-flood plain, 3-delta

C1-barrier island, 2-continental shelf, 3-alluvial fan

D1-continental shelf, 2-continental rise, 3-barrier island

2 . Which of these substances plays the m ost important part in chemical w eathering?

3 . By how much has the length of the delta increased from 1982 to 1996?

4 . What is located beneath soil layers?

5 . Which of these pieces of basalt rock has probably been in a river the longest?

6 . Dramatic variations in the polar ice caps and glaciers m ost likely suggest changes in —

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 28

7 . Sinkholes associated w ith natural processes are characteristic of w hat type of bedrock?

8 . Why does w ater move more slow ly through clay than through humus?

9 . The picture on the right show s that one of the main pollution problems associated w ith sinkholes is that —

10 . Which diagram below best represents the most common arrangement of zones in a w ater table?

11 . Oil spills have a tremendous impact on the ocean environment, and the oil must be cleaned up after these spills. A new technique for cleaning oil from beaches is called bioremediation. This technique uses naturally occurring bacteria to break dow n the oil. How is this accomplished?

AThe bacteria bind with the oil and bring it to land.

BThe bacteria pull the oil down to the ocean floor.

CThe bacteria chemically change the oil into less harmful substances.

DThe bacteria die and absorb the oil.

12 . All of the follow ing may be found deep in a natural cave EXCEPT —

13 . Which of these best describes forest soil?

FMore rock fragments in the humus layer than in deeper layers

GMore organic matter in the humus layer than in deeper layers

HMore clay in the humus layer than in deeper layers

JMore sand-sized particles in the humus layer than in deeper layers

14 . Which layer of the soil profile on the right w ould be affected the most by w eathering and erosion?

Applicat ion

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 29

Topic 7: Historical Geology

( ES. 8 b, 9 a- e, 10 a- d, 12 a, b, e)

ES.8 The student will investigate and understand geologic processes including plate tectonics. Key concepts include:

฀b) processes (faulting, folding, volcanism, metamorphism, weathering, erosion, deposition, and

sedimentation) and their resulting features;

ES.9 The student will investigate and understand how freshwater resources are influenced by geologic processes and the activities of humans. Key concepts include:

฀a) processes of soil development;

฀b) development of karst topography;

฀c) identification of groundwater zones including water table, zone of saturation, and zone of aeration;

฀d) identification of other sources of fresh water including rivers, springs, and aquifers with reference to the hydrologic cycle;

฀e) dependence on freshwater resources and the effects of human usage on water quality;

ES.10 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of the Earth and life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include:

฀a) traces or remains of ancient, often extinct, life are preserved by various means in many sedimentary rocks;

฀b) superposition, cross-cutting relationships, index fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock;

฀c) absolute and relative dating have different applications but can be used together to determine the age of rocks and structures;

฀d) rocks and fossils from many different geologic periods and epochs are found in Virginia.

ES.12 The student will investigate and understand the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and the interrelationship of geologic processes, biologic processes, and human activities on its composition and dynamics. Key concepts include:

฀a) scientific evidence for atmospheric changes over geologic time;

฀b) current theories related to the effects of early life on the chemical makeup of the atmosphere;

฀e) potential atmospheric compositional changes due to human, biologic, and geologic activity.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Scientific evidence from rocks and fossils provide understanding of the history and evolution of earth. How does scientific evidence from rocks and fossils provide understanding of the history and evolution of the earth?

฀Geologic processes and biologic processes affect the origin and evolution of atmosphere. How is the earth’s atmosphere affected by geologic and biologic processes?

฀How can absolute dating techniques be used to place a numerical age on an event?

฀Absolute and relative dating techniques can be used to determine the origin and geologic history of the earth. How can the geological principles, such as superposition and cross cutting relationships, be used to determine the relative age of rocks?

฀Mountain building, mass extinction, evolution, and climate changes are all part of Earth’s history. Can you explain how mountain building, mass extinction, evolution, and climate changes are part of Earth’s history?

Part One: Fossil Formation and Types

A f ossil is the remains, impressions, or other evidence of the former existence of life preserved in rock. Examples are shells, bones, petrified trees, impressions made by leaves, insects in amber, footprints, or even burrows made by worms. The evidence can be:

• m old – a cavity left by an organism where the ground hardened before the organism had decayed

• cast s – where the cavity left by an organism has been filled, usually by minerals

•p et r if ied r em ain s – where there has been a molecule-for-molecule replacement of the original organism,

turning it into a rock like object made of minerals

• Car b on f ilm is the thin film of a carbon impression left by an object

•Or ig in al r em ain s are when the actual remnants of an organism are discovered. This may be in the form of a bone or tooth or shell, in frozen remains (like a wooly mammoth) or an insect in am b er . I n each case, actually portions of the organism are found.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 32

•Tr ace f ossils are not the actual organism but rather the evidence that an organism once existed.

Examples of this would include tracks, nests, or tools (for early humans) .

Nearly all fossils are found in sedimentary rock. Fossils are more likely to form if organisms have hard parts and if they are quickly buried. Sometimes, a fossil that lived in a wide geographic area, lived a short time and is easily recognizable is referred to as an in d ex f ossil . These index fossils assist geologists in determining ages of other things found in that same layer of rock.

Key Vocabulary: amber, carbon film, cast, fossil, index fossil, mold, original remains, petrified remains, trace fossil

Part Tw o: Relative Dating

Relat iv e d at in g (also called relative time or relative age) places events in a sequence without assigning any numerical ages. This does not give the time of the actual event, it just indicates the age in comparison with other events. Most geologic work is done using relative time. There are rules, laws and principles that are used to determine the relative age of rock layers. These layers in one location are compared to layers in another location and based on the cor r elat ion (how the layer sequence matches up), scientists can determine what happened geologically They are…

•Hor izon t alit y states that all rock layers are initially laid down horizontally. I f one or more layers are not

horizontal this indicates some sort of tectonic action such as u p lif t in g .

•Su p er p osi t io n states that in a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks, the oldest rock will be at the bottom of the sequence and the youngest will be at the top.

•Cr oss- Cu t t in g Relationships states that an igneous rock is younger than the rocks it has intruded (cut across). One of these cross-cutting relationships is an ig n eou s in t r u sio n where magma is squeezed into cracks (f au lt s) in rock layers or in between layers. Also, the event that caused a fault is younger than any rocks the fault has cut across.

•I n clu d ed Fr ag m en t s states that pieces of one rock found in another rock must be older than the rock in

which they are found.

• An u n con f or m it y is a place in the rock record where layers of rock are missing. Unconformities are gaps in geologic time.

A key component of understanding geologic history is the concept of u n if or m it ar ian ism . This means that geologic processes that are occurring today also occurred in the past. Because of that understanding, it allows scientists to make assumptions about how rock layers were formed.

Key Vocabulary: correlation, cross-cutting, fault, horizontality, igneous intrusion, included fragments, relative dating, superposition, unconformity, uplift

Part Three: Absolut e Dating

Ab solu t e d at in g (also called absolute time or absolute age) time places a numerical age on an event . This is difficult and expensive to obtain.

• Rad ioact iv e d ecay is used to determine the absolute age of rocks.

•Half - lif e is the time required for half a given sample of a radioactive isotope to decay. Two things are absolutely consistent about half-life…the amount of time for each half-life and the fact that 50% of the radioactive material will decay for each half-life…time and amount .

•The original radioactive material is referred to as the p ar en t material and the resulting decay material is referred to as the d au g h t er material.

•Car b on - 1 4 is a method of dating that is only used on objects that were once living. I t has a half-life of 5730 years.

•U- 2 3 8 (uranium) is another radioactive element which is found in rocks that decays into Pb-206 (lead). I t has a half-life of 4.5 billion years.

Key Vocabulary: absolute dating, carbon-14, daughter, half-life, parent, radioactive decay, U-238

Part Four: The Geologic Time Scale

The Geologic Timetable is a summary of the major events in Earth’s history preserved in the rock record. There are 4 major divisions of time. The largest division of time is an eo n . Mostly, we deal with er as, which are also very large divisions. Eras are major subdivisions based on differences in life forms. Eras are divided into smaller segments called p er io d s based on types of life existing at the time and geologic events. Like eras, periods differ from one another in plant and animal life although less than between eras. Some of the periods are further divided into ep och s. These divisions are shorter and changes in life are not as large as between periods. The four major eras are:

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 33

•Pr ecam b r ian (which can be divided into Archeozoic and Proterozoic eras): The Precambrian Era began 4.6 billion years ago, when life first appeared. Life-forms present were cyanobacteria, invertebrates – jellyfish, marine worms. The Precambrian Era was the longest era. I t produced very few fossils. Bacteria formed O2, Ozone (O3) began to develop, and the atmosphere began to form.

•Paleozoic: The Paleozoic Era (the age of marine invertebrates) is the second oldest era of our Earth's history. Paleozoic means "Ancient Life" and lasted 345 million years. This is the first era in which scientists have found numerous fossils. I t began about 600 million years ago with the first trilobites, a small, shelled sea creature resembling a modern crab. The Paleozoic is called the "Age of Fish". The continents were all connected into one huge landmass called Pangaea during the early Paleozoic.

•M esozoic: Mesozoic means "Middle Life" and began about 225 million years ago and ended about 70 million years ago. This era is called the "Age of the Reptiles". The era started with the rise of the dinosaurs. The first birds were evolved during the Mesozoic. The end of the Mesozoic was marked by the extinction of the dinosaurs. There are numerous theories as to why the great dinosaurs became extinct. The leading theory is that an asteroid hit in an area called the Chicxulub Crater in Mexico. This would have caused tremendous climate change in a short amount of time which the dinosaurs were unable to adapt to,

causing their extinction.

• Cen ozoic: The Cenozoic Era is also called the "Age of the Mammals". I t began about 65 million years ago as the great lizards, the dinosaurs became extinct. This led to a rise in the mammal population.

We are currently living in the Cenozoic Era, the Quarternary Period and the Holocene Epoch. Key Vocabulary: Cenozoic, eon, epoch, era, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, period, Precambrian

Part Five: Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere

The early atmosphere contained little oxygen and more carbon dioxide than the modern atmosphere. Early life such as cy an o b act er ia (blue-green algae) consumed carbon dioxide and generated oxygen by a process called p h o t osy n t h esis. I t was only after early photosynthetic life generated oxygen that animal life became possible. Part of the oxygen created combined to form ozon e which protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. Key Vocabulary: cyanobacteria, ozone, photosynthesis

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Volcanic ash has occasionally formed molds of animals. This occurs w hen the ash covers the animal and —

3 . Rock layers tell a story about their past. What is the basic assumption that is made w hen reading this story?

FThe composition of the Earth’s atmosphere has been constant.

GThe Earth’s crust cooled and then remelted before rock layers began to form.

HThe processes in the rock cycle were the same in the past as they are today.

JChemical reactions in the past were slower than they are today.

4 . Which of these is the b est indication of the relative age of a rock layer?

AThe thickness of the layer

BThe chemical makeup of the layer

CThe position of the layer compared to other layers

DThe distance the layer extends over the Earth

5 . According to the graph on the right, a piece of timber containing one- eighth of the amount of carbon- 14 that is found in a living tree died about how many years ago?

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 34

6 . Of the follow ing, the largest division on the geologic time scale is —

8 . Not all fossils have been preserved inside soil or rock. Explorers in Siberia have discovered the bodies of ancient mammoths so w ell- preserved that the flesh could be eaten. What do you think preserved the mammoths in such a perfect state?

9 . These geologic cross sections show the location of three fossilized species ( W, X, and Y) found in rock layers at tw o nearby sites. Species X is probably the oldest species because it is found —

10 . What is the best evidence that many different geologic periods are represented in Virginia?

11 . The table on the right show s the area and average depth of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Approximately how many times greater is the volume of w ater in the Pacific Ocean than in the Atlantic Ocean?

15 . Which of the follow ing may preserve ancient remains of plants and animals?

Applicat ion

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 35

Principles, Rules & Law s of Relative Dating: Number the events (1 – 12) beginning with the oldest, ending with the youngest. Additionally, define the terms below AND indicate the event numbers that are associated with that term. Numbers may be used with more than one term.

cross-cutting relationship –

fault –

horizontality –

igneous intrusion –

included fragments –

superposition –

What is an index fossil and w hy is it important?

unconformity –

uplift –

–

2.

–

–

3.

–

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 36

Virginia Geology / Chesapeake Bay

( ES. 8 a; E.S. 7 c- e, 9 f, 11a- c)

฀a) how geologic processes are evidenced in the physiographic provinces of Virginia including the Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and Appalachian Plateau;

฀c) resources found in Virginia;

฀d) making informed judgments related to resource use and its effects on Earth systems;

฀e) environmental costs and benefits.

฀f) identification of the major watershed systems in Virginia including the Chesapeake Bay and its

tributaries.

ES.11 The student will investigate and understand that oceans are complex, interactive physical, chemical, and biological systems and are subject to long- and short -term variations. Key concepts include:

฀a) physical and chemical changes (tides, waves, currents, sea level and ice cap variations, upwelling, and salinity concentrations);

฀b) importance of environmental and geologic implications;

฀c) systems interactions (density differences, energy transfer, weather, and climate);

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Virginia is divided into five physiographic provinces based on rock type and topography. How do Virginia’s five provinces reflect its geologic history?

฀Water in the Chesapeake Bay comes from a variety of sources and is impacted by human and natural activities. How are the resources and productivity of the Chesapeake Bay impacted by human and natural activities and the source from which the water comes?

฀Resources in the Chesapeake Bay are impacted by the water quality of the bay, including nutrient levels and the abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation. I n what ways are Chesapeake Bay resources impacted by the water quality?

Part One: Characteristics of Virginia’s 5 Physiographic Provinces

Virginia crosses 5 of the 24 geologic provinces of the United States. They are…

The Coast al Plain region…

•contains the youngest sedimentary rocks in Virginia and has a terraced landscape

•has sediments that usually consist of sand, gravel, shells and clay

•consists of a great variety of fossil beds which contain fossilized shells, bones and teeth.

•A part of the Eastern Shore of the Coastal Plain, known as the Barrier I slands, exhibits growth and destruction phases due to changing sea levels during the past I ce Ages.

•A large meteor impact influenced much of the shape of the Chesapeake Bay.

•Most of the sediments in this area came from the Appalachian Mountains. This means that the Coastal Plain is

the youngest of the Virginia provinces.

• I mportant m in er al resources found in the Coastal Plain include deposits of titanium bearing minerals.

•Oil and Nat u r al Gas can also be found offshore. The Pied m on t region…

•consists of low rolling hills and shallow valleys

•Dominant rocks found in this province are igneous and metamorphic (slates, marbles, granite and quartzite) .

•Much deformation (such as folding, faulting and fracturing) has occurred to the rocks in this area.

•There are many unmetamorphosed (no heat and pressure applied) sandstone and shale found in basins that are around 205-245 mya.

•Many preserved fossils – including dinosaur tracks – were found here.

•I mportant minerals are g o ld and p y r it e .

•some coal beds and m et h an e are also found here.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 38

The Blu e Rid g e region…

•is a mountain chain that ranges from 2 miles wide at the Potomac River to 50 miles wide at the VA-NC border.

•These mountains are very rugged and covered with weathered igneous and metamorphic rock.

•Three major rivers breach these mountains: The James River, The Potomac River and The Roanoke River.

•Precambrian aged metamorphosed rock as well as ancient lava flows make up these mountains.

•The weathered rocks of this area supply the sediment to the provinces towards the coast.

•Co p p er , ir on , t in and t u r q u oise are mined from the Blue Ridge.

Valley an d Rid g e region…

•contains sedimentary rocks that date back 550 mya.

•Rocks include lim est on e, sandstone, and shale. Most of the caves of Virginia formed from the limestone deposits in this province.

•Extreme faulting and folding with very old rock terrains can be found here.

•Mineral resources include lim e, lead , tin and iron.

•Oil, gas and coal are also found here.

The Ap p alach ian Plat eau region…

•contains deep narrow valleys and steep, rugged mountain sides

•contains sandstone and shale as old as 320 mya.

•Coal b ed s can be found throughout . The coal is what makes this area economically important. There are some small oil fields.

Key Vocabulary: Appalachian Plateau, Blue Ridge, Coastal Plain, coal, copper, gold, iron, lead, lime, limestone, methane, mineral, natural gas, oil, Piedmont, pyrite, tin, turquoise, Valley and Ridge

Part Tw o: The Chesapeake Bay

An est u ar y …

•is a semi-enclosed body of water that has a free connection with the sea

•has more food for organisms, but the organisms usually have to deal with large temperature and salinity changes, high silt content and pollution. Many marine organisms are filter feeders so silt can be a major

problem. Many of these filter feeders are important as food to humans.

A w at er sh ed is the d r ain ag e ar ea for a bay or river. The six states that make up the watershed of the Chesapeake Bay are: Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, Delaware, New York, and Pennsylvania. All of Virginia’s water ends up in one of 3 major watersheds…the Chesapeake Bay, the North Carolina Sounds or the Gulf of Mexico.

Some Bay facts…

• The Ch esap eak e Bay is the largest estuary in the United States.

•There are 5 major rivers that flow into the bay. From South to North, they are The Jam es, Yor k , Rap p ah an n ock , Po t o m ac, and the Su sq u eh an n a Rivers.

•The Susquehanna River provides about 50% of the fresh water coming into the Bay.

•The river empties an average of 19 million gallons of water per minute.

•The Bay area is home to over 15,000,000 people!

•About 50,000 commercial vessels enter the Bay each year. All these people and activities put a strain on the

Bay ecology.

The Bay is home to over 3600 species of living organisms and has 5 basic communities.

• M ar sh dwellers are located in and around marshes. They include small fish, birds, and marsh grasses.

•Submerged Aquatic Vegetation ( SAV) Communities are important for many reasons. They include ducks, crabs, and eelgrass.

•The Plan k t o n Community includes the drifters of the Bay as well as phytoplankton, bacteria, and zooplankton.

•The Ben t h ic Community refers to the organisms that live at the bottom of the Bay. Benthic organisms include oysters, clams, barnacles, and mud crabs.

•The N ek t on Community refers to the swimmers of the Bay. Nekton Communities are croaker, spot, and

menhaden.

Bay Pollution: There are two types of pollution that affect the Chesapeake Bay…

•p oin t sou r ce p oll u t ion – when you can identify the exact location of the origin of the pollution (a wastewater treatment plant, an industry, an oil spill, etc.)

•n on - p oin t sou r ce p oll u t ion – when the origin of the pollution is from a large area or region (farm land, urban areas, etc.) This is the most common type in Virginia. Example: Farmers and homeowners fertilize

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 39

their farms or lawns. That fertilizer ends up in the rivers and eventually into the Bay. I n the rivers and the Bay, the fertilizer causes major algae blooms. These algae blooms block out the sunlight . The plants on the bottom cannot receive sunlight and die off. Their decomposition removes oxygen from the Bay and ends up killing off marine life that depends on the plants for food and/ or habitat.

Key Vocabulary: benthic, Chesapeake Bay, drainage area, estuary, James, marsh, nekton, non-point source, plankton, point source, Potomac, Rappahannock, SAV, Susquehanna, watershed, York

Sample SOL Questions

1 . I n w hich province w ould clay, sand, and gravel deposits be found?

AAppalachian Plateau

BValley and Ridge

CBlue Ridge

DCoastal Plain

2 . Many quarries in Virginia produce crushed stone. What industry uses the most crushed stone?

3 . Which recent geologic processes commonly occur in the Coastal Plain region of Virginia?

4 . The folding and faulting found in the rocks of the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia w ere created by —

5 . Which natural resource found in Virginia is a common source of energy?

6 . Which of the follow ing minerals found in the northern Piedmont province is know n as “fool’s gold”?

7 . The presence of many metamorphic rocks in Virginia is an indication that the area has been subjected to —

8 . According to the above map, the largest river basin in Virginia is drained by the —

There have been no specific questions about the Chesapeake Bay as yet.

Application

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 40

States in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed:

Virginia Waters’ Watersheds:

5 Main Tributaries of the Bay (locate them on the map):

Estuary (definition):

Watershed (definition):

Bay Communities:

1.SAV -

2.Marsh Dwellers -

3.Nekton:

4.Plankton -

5.Benthos -

Point Source Pollution -

Non-point Source Pollution -

Estuaries: Describe each estuary shown below. I ndicate the one that is the same type as the Chesapeake Bay.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 42

Oceanography

฀a) analyzing how science explains and predicts the interactions and dynamics of complex Earth systems;

฀b) sun-Earth-moon relationships (seasons, tides, and eclipses);

฀d) making informed judgments related to resource use and its effects on Earth systems;

฀e) environmental costs and benefits.

฀c) tectonic processes (subduction, rifting and sea floor spreading, and continental collision).

ES.11 The student will investigate and understand that oceans are complex, interactive physical, chemical, and biological systems and are subject to long- and short -term variations. Key concepts include:

฀a) physical and chemical changes (tides, waves, currents, sea level and ice cap variations, upwelling, and salinity concentrations);

฀b) importance of environmental and geologic implications;

฀c) systems interactions (density differences, energy transfer, weather, and climate);

฀d) features of the sea floor (continental margins, trenches, mid-ocean ridges, and abyssal plains) reflect tectonic processes;

฀e) economic and public policy issues concerning the oceans and the coastal zone including the Chesapeake Bay.

ES.13 The student will investigate and understand that energy transfer between the sun, Earth, and the Earth's atmosphere drives weather and climate on Earth. Key concepts include:

฀d) weather phenomena and the factors that affect climate including radiation and convection.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Earth’s surface changes constantly. How does the earth’s surface change?

฀Sea floor features can be created and destroyed by geologic processes. How are sea floor features created and destroyed?

฀Ocean resources are limited and their use impacts the environment and economy. What impact does the use of ocean resources have on the environment and economy?

฀Human activities impact ocean resources. How can human activities impact ocean resources?

฀Scientists use maps, globes, models, charts and imagery to interpret and measure Earth’s surfaces. How do scientists use maps, globes, models, charts and imagery to interpret and measure the sea floor?

฀How can technology be used to make and interpret maps, models and images of the sea floor?

Part One: I nteracting Processes and Systems

The ocean covers 70 % of the Earth. I t contains dissolved salts with ions such as chloride, sodium, magnesium, and potassium. Salin it y is a measure if the amount of salts dissolved in seawater. Almost all of the energy that heats up the oceans comes from the sun, but light and heat do not penetrate very deeply into the ocean.

Oceanographers divide the ocean into three temperature layers.

•The su r f ace zo n e is warm with sunlight. The surface zone is also called the mixed layer because wind and waves mix heat evenly through this zone.

•The layer of ocean directly beneath the mixed layer, in which the temperature changes rapidly, is called the

t h er m oclin e. This middle zone is penetrated by little light. The middle zone has a cold temperature.

•The d eep zon e is very cold and has no sunlight . Ocean water moves by currents and waves.

•Cu r r en t s are mass movements or flows of ocean water.

• Most waves on the ocean surface are generated by w in d . The top of a wave is the cr est ; the bottom is the t r o u g h . The distance between two crests or troughs is the w av el en g t h . The distance between the crest and the trough is the w av e h ei g h t .

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 43

• A t su n am i is a very large wave produced by seismic activity on the ocean floor.

•The t id es are the daily periodic rise and fall of water level caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon. Sp r in g t id es occur when the Sun, Earth and Moon are in a straight line making high tides higher and low tides lower. Neap t id es occur when the Sun and the Moon are at right angles to the Earth making high tides lower and low tides higher.

•There are large current systems called g y r es in the oceans that carry warm water towards the poles and cold

water towards the equator. They move by co n v ect io n and by d en sit y .

•Estuaries, like the Chesapeake Bay, are areas where fresh and salt water mix, producing variations in salinity and high biological activity.

•Up w ellin g brings cold, nutrient -rich water from the deep ocean to the surface and are areas of rich biological activity.

•Sea level falls when glacial ice caps grow and rises when ice caps melt .

•The stored heat in the ocean drives much of the Earth’s weather. The stored heat in the ocean causes climate near the ocean to be milder than the climate in the interior of continents.

Key Vocabulary: convection, crest, current, deep zone, density, gyre, mixed layer, neap tide, salinity, spring tide, surface zone, thermocline, tide, trough, tsunami, upwelling, wave height, wavelength, wind

Part Tw o: Ocean Topography

There are 8 basic features of the ocean floor.

• The co n t in en t al sh elf is really a gently sloping part of the continent that is under shallow water.

•The co n t in en t al slo p e is the zone of steeply sloped sea floor leading from the continental shelf toward the ocean bottom.

•Separating the continental slope from the ocean bottom is the con t in en t al r ise and is made up of sediments, or small bits of rock and plant and animal remains.

•The ab y ssal p lain is a flat stretch of the deep ocean around the margins of the continents.

• I n the abyssal plain you may find seam ou n t s which are underwater volcanoes at current or former location of hot spots.

•I n the abyssal plain you may also find g u y o t s which are seamounts that are no longer active and have flat tops due to erosion by water movement.

•M id - ocean r id g es are chains of underwater mountains that run throughout the ocean basins and are a result of plate tectonic movement at a divergent boundary. This is where magma is squeezing through the crack in the plates and is building up into ridges.

•I n the middle of the mid-ocean ridge is the r if t v alley . This is the location of the ‘crack’ in the plates. Expect to find volcanic activity.

•The deepest places in the ocean are called t r en ch es. Trenches are narrow channels more than 6km deep. They are caused by converging tectonic plates at a subduction zone. Expect to find volcanoes.

Key Vocabulary: abyssal plain, continental rise, continental shelf, continental slope, guyot, mid-ocean ridge, rift valley, seamount, trench

Part Three: Ocean Resources and Human Activity

Algae in the oceans are an important source of atmospheric oxygen. The oceans are an important source of food and m in er al resources as well as a venue for recreation and transportation.

Pollu t ion and ov er - f ish in g can harm or deplete valuable resources. Chemical pollution and sedimentation are great threats to the chemical and biological well being of estuaries and oceans.

Key Vocabulary: over-fishing, pollution, resources

Sample SOL Questions

1 . Seaw ater is typically denser than freshw ater due to seaw ater’s —

2 . When the sea floor spreads apart, volcanoes and ridges are formed because —

Asediments are deposited where the floor spreads, building ridges

Bas the plates pull apart, magma moves to the surface, building ridges

Cocean water pushes down on the surrounding sea floor, pushing up ridges

Dunderwater earthquakes lift the sea floor into long ridges

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 44

3 . All of the follow ing features of the ocean indicate tectonic activity ex cep t —

4 . Why is the surface temperature of the oceans more variable than the w ater near the ocean floor?

5 . Many species of the order Cetacea ( w hales, dolphins, and porpoises) have become so scarce that they are now protected by international law . Which of the follow ing probably did NOT contribute to the decline in these populations?

7 . Which of these describes the most common w ay that material is added to a continental shelf?

8 . Most w ater leaves the ocean through evaporation and returns to the ocean through —

9 . The Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean is 36,160 feet below sea level. This deep oceanic trench is caused by —

Aswift ocean currents eroding away the ocean floor

Bthe collapse of an empty magma chamber in a large volcano

Cexcessive boat traffic disrupting the normal sedimentation process

Dtwo tectonic plates colliding and one plunging below the other

10 . Why is the surface temperature of the oceans more variable than the w ater near the ocean floor?

Applicat ion

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Page 45

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010

The Ocean Floor: Label the items below. The boxes are for things that need no definition. The circles are for things that should be defined below. Write the number in the boxes or circles that matches the terms below. Color parts of the diagram as needed.

Terms for boxed items: The number in parentheses indicates how many times it appears in the picture.

Terms for circled items: The number in parentheses indicates how many times it appears in the picture. DEFI NE!

1.abyssal plain (1) –

2.continental rise (1) –

3.continental shelf (2) –

4.continental slope (2) –

5.guyot (1) –

6.mid-ocean ridge (1) –

7.rift valley (1) –

8.seamount (1) –

9.trench (1) –

What is SONAR?

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 46

Met eorology

( ES. 12 a- e, 13a- d)

ES.12 The student will investigate and understand the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and the interrelationship of geologic processes, biologic processes, and human activities on its composition and dynamics. Key concepts include:

฀a) scientific evidence for atmospheric changes over geologic time;

฀b) current theories related to the effects of early life on the chemical makeup of the atmosphere;

฀c) comparison of the Earth’s atmosphere to that of other planets;

฀d) atmospheric regulation mechanisms including the effects of density differences and energy transfer;

฀e) potential atmospheric compositional changes due to human, biologic, and geologic activity.

ES.13 The student will investigate and understand that energy transfer between the sun, Earth, and the Earth's atmosphere drives weather and climate on Earth. Key concepts include:

฀a) observation and collection of weather data;

฀b) prediction of weather patterns;

฀c) severe weather occurrences such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and major storms;

฀d) weather phenomena and the factors that affect climate including radiation and convection.

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Geological and biological processes affect the origin and evolution of the atmosphere. Describe how geological and biological processes affect the origin and evolution of the atmosphere.

฀Human activities change the atmosphere and climate. How can humans and geological processes change the atmosphere and affect climate?

฀Weather patterns are created by the transfer of energy between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere. Summarize some processes that would explain how these things interact to create weather patterns.

฀Scientists use maps, instruments, models, charts and imagery to forecast the weather. How can technology, meteorological instruments, maps and models be used to forecast the weather?

฀How did early life affect the chemical make-up of the atmosphere?

฀How does scientific evidence support the theory that the atmosphere changes over time?

Part One: Composition/ Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere creates a unique balance between the energy received and lost from the sun. Compare Earth’s atmosphere to that of other inner planets.

•Because of this and the fact that water exists in all 3 states, Ear t h has life. The earth’s atmosphere is composed of: 78 % n it r og en , 21 % ox y g en , between 0% and 3% w at er v ap o r . Other gases make up 1% of the atmosphere.

•The atmosphere of M ar s is mostly CO2 and very thin. Mars does not have life but it has water but only in a frozen state…and that is probably below the surface. There is no evidence of existing surface water.

•There is no evidence of life on Ven u s. The atmosphere of Venus is 95% CO2 and is very dense. There is evidence that Venus may have had surface water at one time but it is too hot for it to have surface water now. There is water vapor in its atmosphere.

•There is no life on the m o o n . The moon has no atmosphere. There is no evidence that the Moon ever had water.

•M er cu r y has no atmosphere. There is no life on Mercury. There is no evidence that Mercury ever had

water.

The Earth’s atmosphere can be separated into layers based on temperature.

•The t r o p osp h er e is the layer of the atmosphere that is closest to the ground. I t is heated by the earth’s surface. Temperatures decrease as altitude increases. All weather occurs in the troposphere. The upper limit of the troposphere is the t r op o p au se.

•The st r at osp h er e lies above the troposphere. I t contains the ozone layer, the temperatures increase as altitude increases. This is the layer where j et s fly and it is also the location of the ozon e layer. The upper limit of the stratosphere is the st r at op au se.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 48

• The m esosp h er e lies above the stratosphere. Temperature decreases as altitude increases. This is the coldest layer. The upper limit of the mesosphere is the m eso p au se.

•The t h er m osp h er e lies above the mesosphere. Temperatures increase as altitude increases. I t can be subdivided into two parts. The lower thermosphere is called the ion osp h er e (area of electrically charged particles). Radio waves bounce off the ionosphere back to the earth. The ex osp h er e is the upper part of the thermosphere. I t is the outermost layer, and has no definite end. Sat ellit es and space shuttles orbit earth in the exosphere. This is the warmest layer.

Key Vocabulary: Earth, exosphere, ionosphere, jet, Mars, Mercury, mesopause, mesosphere, moon, nitrogen, oxygen, ozone, satellite, stratopause, stratosphere, thermosphere, tropopause, troposphere, Venus, water vapor

Part Tw o: Atmospheric Mechanisms

Atmospheric regulation mechanisms including the effects of density differences and energy transfer. Three things can happen when Earth receives energy from the sun:

•land/ water absorption – Land/ water absorption occurs when energy is absorbed by the surface. The land heats and cools more rapidly than the ocean. The oceans store heat .

Energy is transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.

•Rad iat ion is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. We experience this as heat and light on Earth. The Ozone layer absorbs UV radiation. Smog and pollution keep some energy from being reflected, making areas hotter.

•Con d u ct io n is the transfer of heat thru direct contact (molecules bumping into one another) You have seen examples of conduction in your everyday life such as when feet get hot on hot asphalt or when pan gets hot on a hot burner.

•Con v ect io n is the transfer of heat by the flow of a heated material (either gas or liquid). Heat rises, cold falls creating convection currents. Deep water currents, plate tectonics, and air masses work this way.

Key Vocabulary: absorption, conduction, convection, radiation, reflection

Part Three: Air Masses and Fronts

Air that stays in one area for a long time takes on the weather of that area. Air masses are large bodies of air that have the same characteristics as the surface over which it developed. For example: I f air stays in the Artic, it becomes cold. I f air stays over the ocean, it becomes moist. I t is important to understand the types, sources and paths of, and weather associated with air masses. There are 5 basic types of air masses.

•Continental Artic (cA) air masses come from very high latitudes and are extremely cold and dry.

•Continental Polar (cP) air mass comes from land areas that are at high latitudes and are cold and dry.

•Maritime Polar (m P) comes from cold oceans and are cold and humid.

•Continental Tropical (cT) comes from warm land areas and are hot and dry.

•Maritime Tropical ( m T) comes from warm seas/ oceans and are warm and humid.

A Front is the boundary between two air masses. There are 4 types of fronts. On a weather map, the symbols for the front are pointed in the direction the air mass is moving.

• A cold f r on t occurs when cold air mass pushes under warm air mass. Narrow bands of storms are produced.

•A w ar m f r on t occurs when warm air mass goes over a cold air mass. Wide bands of precipitation is produced.

•An occlu d ed f r on t occurs when two cold air masses merge, forcing warm air up. Strong winds and heavy precipitation are produced.

•A st at ion ar y f r on t occurs when warm and cold air masses meet and stop. Light wind and precipitation are produced.

Key Vocabulary: cA, cold front, cP, cT, mP, mT, occluded front, stationary front, warm front

Part Four: Weather Patterns

I nformation regarding things that affect weather/ climate...

•W eat h er is the present state of the atmosphere. Factors affecting weather include: air pressure, wind, and temperature.

•Clim at e is an average of the weather over a long period of time in a certain area.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 49

•Latitude, large bodies of w at er , m o u n t ain s (elevation), and season s affect climate. Latitude affects climate and how the energy is received from the sun. Near the poles the sun’s energy is spread thinly over a large area. Near the equator, the sun’s energy is spread out less. Here the sunlight is more direct.

•Large bodies of water will affect the climate for a particular area. Water heats up and cools down more slowly than land. Usually coastal areas are in warmer in summer and cooler in winter. Sea breezes and warm ocean currents play a role.

•The presence of mountains will affect the climate of a given area. I t’s cooler up higher (less air molecules to absorb heat). The w in d w ar d sides of mountains are wetter (wind, moisture, rain). On the leew ar d side of mountains (no wind) air heats up and dries things out . As moist air is pushed up a mountain, it cools. Cool air cannot hold water as well as warm air so condensation occurs. At some point, precipitation follows.

•Seasons affect climate and the way energy is received by the Earth. Summer – more direct radiation (tilt toward the sun). Winter – less radiation (tilt away from the sun) . Fall and spring – equal distribution of

radiation.

Water/ Precipitation in the atmosphere comes in several forms:

•Hail – lumps of ice, formed by rain drops that get blown back up into the cloud, freezes, accumulates layers of rain, drops down, gets blown back up into the cloud by strong updrafts, continuing the freezing, blowing back up, layering until the weight is greater than the force of the air blowing back up into the cloud when it falls as hail. Depending on how may ‘blow back’ trips it makes, it could get very large. High wind storms

tend to produce hail.

• r ain – liquid drops, temperatures are above freezing all the way through the atmosphere

•sn ow – water vapor changes directly to a solid

•sleet – freezes, melts, then re- freezes in below freezing lower atmosphere

•f r eezin g r ain – freezes, melts, then re-freezes upon contact with freezing temperatures at the surface Humidity and factors that affect it…

•Relat iv e h u m id it y is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the total amount of

•Cooler temperature = less humidity (water vapor is able to condense into clouds).

•Higher temperature = more humidity (water vapor is unable to condense into clouds due to faster motion of molecules).

Key Vocabulary: climate, dew point, freezing rain, hail, leeward, mountain, relative humidity, saturated, season, sleet, snow, warm, water, weather, windward

Part Five: Miscellaneous Weather I nformation

Miscellaneous weather info…

•Pr essu r e systems occur when masses of air molecules push down from above. High Pressure – air descends

•Air is a mixture of gases. Pressure is the result of collisions of air molecules with objects, and with each other. Pressure = force/ area Changes in atmospheric pressure result from changes in: temperature, moisture content, and elevation.

•Atmospheric temperature changes from layer to layer. Gases expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled. As a result, hot air is less dense than cool air. I ncreasing air temperature decreases atmospheric pressure. Decreasing air temperature increases atmospheric pressure.

•Water vapor is lighter than nitrogen and oxygen, so adding water vapor makes air lighter; the pressure underneath is lowered.

•Air has weight because gravity pulls air molecules toward the earth’s surface. Near the ground, the air pressure is greater due to the weight of many air molecules pressing down from above. At higher elevations, there is less air to press on a given area. Air p r essu r e is less at higher elevations. Air pressure is greatest at

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 50

sea level. I t is measured in m illib ar s or in inches of mercury. The standard at m osp h er e is equal to 1013.25 millibars.

•Wind is caused by an uneven heating of earth’s atmosphere causing pressure differences. Air ALWAYS moves from high to low pressure creating a circulation. Sea b r eezes come from the sea during the day. Warm air over land is pushed up by cooler air coming in off of water creating a convection current . Lan d b r eezes come from the land at night. Warm air over sea is pushed up by cooler air coming from the land creating a convection current. Mountain breezes move down the mountain at night. Valley breezes move up the mountain in the morning.

•The Cor iolis Ef f ect causes a change in wind direction. I t causes cold moving air from the poles to move toward the west. The Coriolis Effect is the effect of earth’s rotation on the movement of air masses. North of the equator wind deflects to the right. South of the equator wind deflects to the left

•Tr ad e Winds occur from the equator to 30o latitude. Prevailing W est er lies occur from 30 o to 60 o latitude. Polar East er lies occur near poles (90 o degrees latitude). Dold r u m s blow near the equator they are very light and constantly shifting. They make ship navigation difficult.

•Jet St r eam s are narrow belts of strong winds that blow near the top of the troposphere. There is one on each side of the prevailing westerlies in both hemispheres. They have an average wind speed of 97 to 185 kph. The position changes in latitude day to day and season to season. The Jet Stream affects weather patterns and air travel.

•St at ion m o d els are used to represent weather information in a very compact format.

Key Vocabulary: air pressure, atmosphere, cirrus, cloud, Coriolis Effect, cumulous, doldrums, easterlies, jet stream, land breeze, millibar, pressure, sea breeze, station model, stratus, trade, westerlies

Part Six: Severe Weather Occurrences

Severe weather types:

•Th u n d er st or m s (heavy rain, lightning, thunder, hail- cumulonimbus clouds) develop at warm moist air masses along a fast moving cold front .

•Tor n ad oes (funnel clouds): violent, whirling wind moving over a narrow path of land (water spout if it

occurs over water) form along fronts with wind up to 500 km per hour. Their strength is classified by their wind speeds using the En h an ced Fu j it a Scale (EF): EF0 is the weakest, EF5 is the strongest.

•Hu r r ican es (typhoons or cyclones in other oceans): large, swirling, low pressure system form over tropical oceans. The winds must be at least 120 km per hour to be considered a hurricane (under 120 kph = tropical depression or storm). Their strength is classified based on the wind speeds using the Saf f ir - Sim p son

Scale: Category 1 is the weakest, Category 5 is the strongest.

• Winds, in general, can be measured on the Beau f o r t Scale. The scale ranges from 0, which is a dead calm to a 12 which is hurricane conditions.

Key Vocabulary: Beaufort Scale, Enhanced Fujita Scale, hurricane, Saffir-Simpson Scale, thunderstorms, tornado

Part Seven: I nstruments and Forecasting

Meteorologists study weather. St at ion m o d els are a combination of symbols used to show current weather conditions.

•I sot h er m s are lines connecting points of equal temperature.

•I sob ar s are lines connecting points of equal pressure. Meteorologists use various instruments to measure weather data…

•Psy ch r om et er (or hydrometer) is used to measure humidity

•Bar om et er – atmospheric pressure

•Th er m om et er - air temperature

•An em om et er – wind speed

•W eat h er v an e – wind direction

•Rain g au g e – amount of precipitation

Key Vocabulary: anemometer, barometer, isobar, isotherm, psychrometer, rain gauge, station model, thermometer, weather vane

Part Eight: Effects of Human and Geologic Activity

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels have increased CO2 levels. High CO2 levels produce the g r een h ou se ef f ect . CFC's are decreasing the ozone levels of the upper atmosphere. Ozon e blocks harmful UV radiation.

Key Vocabulary: greenhouse effect, ozone

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 51

Sample SOL Questions

1 . The chart show s the relationship betw een altitude and air pressure. What is the approximate air pressure at an altitude of 22 kilometers?

2 . Moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises and cools as it passes from w est to east over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Once it is over the mountain range, the air descends and w arms on the other side. What is the result of the air ascending, then descending over the mountains?

FDesert on the west side of the mountains and heavy rains on the east side

GHeavy rains on the west side of the mountains and desert on the east side

HHeavy rains on the west side of the mountains and year-round snow on the

east side

JDesert on the east and west sides of the mountains and heavy rains on top of the mountains

3 . Which of the follow ing w as primarily responsible for the development of life outside of the oceans?

FA decrease in atmospheric hydrogen

GA decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide

HAn increase in atmospheric nitrogen

JAn increase in atmospheric oxygen

4 . On w eather maps, there are lines w ith tiny triangles on one side. This represents —

Fcold air moving in the direction the triangles point

Gcold air moving opposite the direction the triangles point

Hwarm air moving in the direction the triangles point

Jwarm air moving opposite the direction the triangles point

5 . The label L on the map on the right indicates an area of low —

6 . People have tried many methods to artificially produce rain. One method, called cloud seeding, involves airplanes dropping particles of silver iodide onto clouds to help the clouds produce rain droplets. These silver iodide particles act as —

7 . Which diagram correctly show s w ind motion betw een pressure areas?

A B C D

8 . Which of these is likely to occur after moist air is cooled below its dew point?

9 . Dramatic variations in the polar ice caps most likely suggest changes in —

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 52

1 0 . Water vapor is lighter than many atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. Why then doesn’t w ater vapor rise above these other gases to a higher level of the atmosphere?

AWater vapor contains other elements that give it weight .

BThe cool atmosphere condenses the rising water vapor and causes it to fall back to Earth.

CThe water molecules are attracted to molecules of heavier gases and remain in the lower regions of the atmosphere.

DThere is an attraction among the water vapor molecules to hold them together close to the Earth.

11 . On clear nights in late summer and early fall in the Shenandoah Valley, w hy does ground fog form in the low areas near the Shenandoah River?

FCool, descending air meets moist air in the low areas near the river.

GCool, moist air ascends from the river to the hilltops.

HWarm winds bring moisture from the hills down into the valley.

JThere is more air pollution in the evenings.

12 . Cloudy nights can be w armer than clear nights because clouds trap heat —

13 . According to the map, most hurricanes occur w here —

Fthe oceans are warmest.

Gthe landmasses are largest.

Hthe atmosphere is driest.

Jareas of greatest population exist .

14 . Based on the changes betw een the w eather conditions as seen in the table on the right, w hich of these most likely passed by the w eather station betw een time 1 and time 2?

AThunderstorm

BLow pressure area

CCold front

DWarm front

15 . Most w ater leaves the ocean through evaporation and returns to the ocean through —

Asurface runoff

Bground water

Ctranspiration

Dprecipitation

16 . Based on the symbols show n, w hich of the follow ing represents a w ind speed of 30 knots?

A C

B D

Applicat ion

One the following pages, you will find diagrams to label, information to be completed or questions to be answered. Please complete the pages accurately and study the information contained there.

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 53

Astronomy and Space Science

( ES. 4 a- d, 11 a, 12 c; 13 d, 14 a - e)

ES.4 The student will investigate and understand the characteristics of the Earth and the solar system. Key concepts include:

฀a) position of the Earth in the solar system;

฀b) sun-Earth-moon relationships (seasons, tides, and eclipses);

฀c) characteristics of the sun, planets, their moons, comets, meteors, and asteroids;

฀d) the history and contributions of the space program.

ES.11 The student will investigate and understand that oceans are complex, interactive physical, chemical, and biological systems and are subject to long- and short -term variations. Key concepts include:

฀a) physical and chemical changes (tides, waves, currents, sea level and ice cap variations, upwelling, and

salinity concentrations);

ES.12 The student will investigate and understand the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and the interrelationship of geologic processes, biologic processes, and human activities on its composition and dynamics. Key concepts include:

฀c) comparison of the Earth’s atmosphere to that of other planets;

ES.13 The student will investigate and understand that energy transfer between the sun, Earth, and the Earth's atmosphere drives weather and climate on Earth. Key concepts include:

฀d) weather phenomena and the factors that affect climate including radiation and convection

ES.14 The student will investigate and understand scientific concepts related to the origin and evolution of the universe. Key concepts include:

฀a) nebulae;

฀b) the origin of stars and star systems;

฀c) stellar evolution;

฀d) galaxies;

฀e) cosmology (the Big Bang).

Essential Questions

You should be able to answer the following question with confidence about this topic.

฀Scientists use maps, instruments, models, charts, technology and imagery to explain the origin and evolution of the universe. Describe some of these maps, instruments, models, charts, technology and imagery that are used to explain the origin and evolution of the universe.

฀Sun, earth and moon interact to create events such as the seasons, eclipses and tides. How does scientific evidence support the theory that the universe is constantly changing?

฀How do the sun, earth and moon interact to create events such as the seasons, eclipses and tides?

฀The unique characteristics of the celestial bodies are the result of the organization of the solar system. How does the location of a body in the solar system determine its characteristics?

฀Space exploration and technological advances have increased knowledge of the universe. I n what ways have space exploration and technological advances increased knowledge of the universe?

Part One: The Solar System

There are two groups of planets in our solar system. According to the I nternational Astronomical Union (the organization responsible for naming ANYTHI NG in the heavens, the new definition for planet is “A “ p lan et ” is an object in orbit around the Sun that is large enough (massive enough) to have its self-gravity pull itself into a round (or nearly round) shape. I n addition a “planet” orbits in a clear path around the Sun – there are no other bodies in its path that it must sweep up as it goes around the Sun.”

•The I nner Planets are closest to the sun. These planets are solid, rocky, dense, and small. They are

referred to as t er r est r ial planets. The I nner Planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

•The Outer Planets are farther from the sun. The first four of these planets are g aseou s, and are less dense and large. The Outer Planets are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Although Pluto is an outer planet, it is the smallest planet and it is a rocky planet. I t was recently ‘demoted’ to dwarf planet status.

•Between Mars and Jupiter is the asteroid belt . Ast er o id s are rocky or metallic iron objects ranging in size from millimeters to kilometers. Tens of thousands of asteroids orbit harmlessly in a region referred to as

Written and assembled by D. L. Edwards with input from other valued teachers throughout Virginia. Strasburg High School, Strasburg, VA, May/ June, 2008; Revised May 2010 Page 56

the ast er oid b el t but on occasion, they will collide, sending one or both into odd orbits that may interfere with the orbit of a planet .

•The Solar N eb u la Th eor y states that debris left over from the beginning of the universe condensed to form the Sun and the planets. The solar sy st em consists of the Sun and all of the objects that are

gravitationally bound to it .

There are numerous other objects and regions of objects in the solar system.

•Past the orbit of Pluto is the Ku ip er Belt . I t is a region similar to the asteroid belt . I t is now considered

that Pluto is actually a Kuiper Belt object .

• The Oor t Clou d is a region past the Kuiper Belt and it is believed that comets originate here. A com et is a mass of frozen gasses, dusts and rock particles. They orbit the Sun in a regular period. The tail of a comet always faces away from the Sun due to the solar winds coming from the Sun. Sometimes, they cross the path of Earth’s orbit . When Earth goes through the debris stream from the remnants of a comet, we have a meteor shower. We will go through that same debris trail every year.

There are other objects that interact with Earth. They are meteoroids, meteors and meteorites.

•A m et eor oid is a small rocky object that travels in space. I t is generally considered to be much smaller

than an asteroid.

• A m et eor is a meteoroid that enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up.

•A m et eor it e is a meteor that doesn’t completely burn up and strikes the Earth.. There are two major measurements used in astronomy.

•An ast r o n o m ical u n it (AU) is the average distance between the Sun and the Earth. This is approximately 93 million miles.

•A lig h t y ear (LY) is the distance light travels in one year. This distance is approximately 9.5 trillion miles. Key Vocabulary: asteroid, asteroid belt, astronomical unit, comet, gaseous, Kuiper Belt, light year, meteor, meteorite, meteoroid, Oort Cloud, planet, Solar Nebula Theory, solar system, terrestrial

Part: Tw o: Sun- Earth- Moon System

When a satellite travels around another object, this is called r ev olu t io n . Rot at ion is the word used to describe a satellite turning on its axis.